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ABBOTT'S 

AMERICAN  WATCHMAKER 

AND   JEWELER 


AN    ENCYCLOPEDIA 
FOR  THE  HOROLOGIST,  JEWELER,  GOLD  AND  SILVERSMITH 


CONTAINING  HUNDREDS  OF  PRIVATE 

RECEIPTS  AND  FORMULAS   COMPILED   FROM  THE    BEST 

AND    MOST    RELIABLE    SOURCES.       COMPLETE    DIRECTIONS    FOR    USING 

ALL  THE  LATEST  TOOLS,  ATTACHMENTS  AND   DEVICES 

FOR    WATCHMAKERS    AND   JEWELERS 


BY   HENRY   G.   ABBOTT 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  288  ENGRAVINGS 


C  Hid  AGO: 
Ge&.  K.  Hazlitt  &  Co.,  PUPUSHBIIS, 


Copyrighted  1898,  by 
Geo.  K.  Hazlitt  &  Co. 


PREFACE. 


THE  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1893  and  met 
with  an  unexpected  and  unprecedented  sale,  and  a  second 
edition  was  placed  upon  the  market  in  less  than  ten  months. 
So  much  new  matter  was  added  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  reset 
the  entire  work  in  smaller  type  in  order  to  keep  the  volume  within 
the  price  at  which  it  was  originally  placed  on  the  market.  It  is  the 
first  and  only  book,  of  which  the  author  has  any  knowledge,  which 
illustrates  and  describes  modern  American  tools  for  the  watchmaker 
and  jeweler.  The  ambitious  workman  is  always  in  search  of  knowl- 
edge, in  search  of  new  ideas,  new  tools  and  new  methods.  Patient 
study,  constant  practice  and  ambition  are  requisite  to  become  pro- 
ficient in  any  art.  The  demand  for  skilled  workmen  is  constantly 
increasing,  and  a  person  wishing  to  thoroughly  master  any  art,  must 
be  to  a  certain  extent  capable  of  self  instruction.  To  be  proficient  in 
any  art  a  man  must  not  be  deft  of  touch  alone,  but  the  head  must 
also  play  its  part.  The  watchmaker  is  very  often  called  upon,  espe- 
cially in  country  towns,  not  only  to  clean  and  repair  watches  and 
clocks,  but  is  often  asked  to  repair  music  boxes,  cameras,  fishing 
reels,  phonographs,  musical  instruments,  electric  motors,  statuettes, 
pipes  and  a  variety  of  objects  too  numerous  to  mention.  It  would  be 
next  to  impossible  for  the  workman  to  remember  all  the  various 
instructions,  hints,  pointers,  formulas  and  receipts  which  he  has  read 
or  heard  about,  and  the  author  believes  that  such  persons  will  wel- 
come this  volume  and  that  it  will  prove  valuable  for  reference  in 
cases  of  emergency.  This,  the  seventh  edition,  has  been  entirely 
revised  and  enlarged,  so  that  it  is  more  complete  than  former  edi- 
tions. The  escapements  have  all  been  re-drawn  and  the  descriptions 
I'e'Written  auti  roany  mew  tjepartments  added. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witin  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


htt[?.;//www.arcliiye.org/details/abbottsarriericanwOOabbqiala 


ABBOTT'S    AMERICAN 

WATCHMAKER  AND  JEWELER 


AN  ENCYCLOPEDIA  FOR  THE 
HOROLOGIST,  JEWELER,  GOLD  AND  SILVERSMITH 


ABBEY.  To  him  or  his  assistant,  Graham,  is  attributed  the  inven- 
tion of  the  cylinder  escapement. 

ACCELERATION.  This  term  in  horology  is  applied  to  the  steady 
gaining  in  the  rate  of  a  time-keeper,  particularly  to  be  observed  in 
new  movements.  It  is  positively  known  to  occur  in  marine  chronom- 
eters, watches  as  a  rule  not  being  subjected  to  tests  sufficiently  accur- 
ate to  detect  it  in  them.  There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  hairspring 
is  the  cause  of  acceleration.  Old  movements  after  being  re-sprung 
sometimes  accelerate,  particulaily  if  the  overcoil  is  manipulated  too 
much  when  timing.  It  is  claimed  that  springs  increase  slightly  ir.j 
strength  for  some  time  after  they  are  subjected  to  continuous  action, 
just  as  bells  are  found  to  alter  a  little  in  tone  after  use.  It  is  saicJ 
that  the  very  best  chronometers,  after  going  for  a  year  or  two,  wil'i 
accelerate  by  about  three  or  four  seconds  per  day.  M.  Jacob  attrib, 
utes  this  acceleration  to  the  fact  thai  chronometers  are  exposed  to 
heat  oftener  and  for  longer  periods  than  to  cold,  and  since  the  balance 
is  thus  more  frequently  contracted  it  follows  that  after  a  time  the  seg- 
ments will  not  return  exactly  to  their  initial  positions.  There  will 
therefore  be  necessarily  a  slight  acceleration  of  the  rate. 

Dent  believed  that  it  was  due  to  the  combination  of  oxygen  of  the 
air  with  the  steel  hairspring,  so  that  after  a  time  its  rigidity  is  increased. 

M.  Villarceau  attributed  it  to  the  influence  of  the  escapement  and 
that  it  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  impact  communicating  the  impulse 
occurs  before  the  balance  has  arrived  at  its  neutral  position. 

M.  H.  Robert  attributes  it  to  the  fact  that  the  resistance  opposed 
by  oil  at  the  pivots  of  the  escape  wheel  difiEers  from  that  at  the  pivots 
of  the  balance. 

Flat  springs  do  not  accelerate  as  much  as  those  having  overcoils. 
Palladium  springs  accelerate  much  less  than  hardened  steel  springs. 

5 


Acids  and  Salts.  6 

ACIDS  AND  SALTS.  Acids  and  salts  of  various  kinds  are  em- 
ployed by  the  watchmaker  and  jeweler,  but  he  should  never  keep  them 
in  proximity  to  his  tools  or  work,  or  he  may  have  cause  to  regret  it  some 
day.     It  is  advisable  to  keep  them  in  glass  stoppered  bottles. 

Acetic  Acid  of  commerce  varies  considerably  in  concentration  and  is 
usually  of  a  very  light  yellow  color.  It  is  very  acid  in  taste  and  has  a 
pungent  odor  by  which  it  is  easily  distinguished. 

Alum  is  sometimes  used  for  removing  the  stains  left  by  soldering,  in 
lieu  of  acids,  and  is  also  used  in  removing  broken  screws  from  brass 
plates  by  immersing  the  plates  in  a  strong  solution  of  alum  and  water, 
the  best  results  being  obtained  from  a  boiling  solution,  which  rapidly 
converts  the  steel  into  rust,  while  it  does  not  attack  the  brass  plate. 

Ammonia,  or  spirits  of  hartshorn,  of  commerce  is  sold  usually  in  the 
form  of  a  colorless  liquid  known  as  aqua  ammonia,  which  is  obtained 
from  the  ammonical  liquor  which  results  from  the  distillation  of  coal 
for  the  manufacture  of  gas.  Its  properties  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
of  soda,  potash  and  other  alkalies.  It  will  restore  the  blue  color  of  litmus 
paper  which  has  been  reddened  by  acid,  and  counteracts  the  strongest 
acids. 

Ammonia  Phosphate  of  commerce  is  a  salt  produced  by  the  exact 
saturation  of  phosphoric  acid  with  ammonia.  It  is  very  useful  in  baths 
for  producing  thick  platinum  deposits. 

Ammonium  Sulphide  of  commerce  is  a  liquid  produced  by  satu- 
rating  ammonia  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  In  combination  with 
metals  it  rapidly  forms  sulphides  and  is  used  on  silver  for  producing  the 
black  coating  sometimes  called  oxidation,  and  is  employed  for  bronzing 
metals. 

Aqua  Regia  is  a  combination  of  i  part  nitric  acid  and  2  parts  hy- 
drochloric acid,  and  its  strength  greatly  depends  upon  the  ilegrees  of 
strength  of  the  two  ingredients  that  form  it,  which  vary  in  commerce 
considerably.  It  is  the  strongest  solvent  of  metals,  and  the  only  one 
that  dissolves  gold  and  platinum. 

Boric  Acid  is  employed  for  decomposing  the  subsalts  deposited 
in  cyanide  electro- baths,  and  for  increasing  the  whiteness  of  silver 
alloys. 

Borax  of  commerce  is  usually  met  with  in  the  form  of  colorless  crys- 
tals. When  healed  by  means  of  the  blow  pipe  these  crystals  expand  and 
finally  run  into  a  kind  of  glass  which  dissolves  nearly  all  the  metallic 
oxides,  and  on  this  account  it  is  used  as  a  flux  in  hard  soldering. 
It  is  also  used  in  assaying  with  blow-pipe,  for  destroying  the  sub-salts 
of  silver  formed  in  electro  plating  baths,  and  for  restoring  the  shade 
of  defective  gilding  baths. 


7  Acids  and  Salts. 

Chromic  Acid  is  generally  made  by  a  combination  of  bichromate  of 
potash  and  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  used  to  excite  galvanic  batteries  and 
as  an  etching  agent. 

Hydrochloric  Acid  of  commerce,  is  a  mixture  of  the  acid  proper 
and  water.  The  acid  proper  is  gaseous,  and  is  therefore  combined  with 
water.     It  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  soda. 

Hydrofluoric  Acid  will  dissolve  nearly  all  the  metals  except  sil 
ver,  plaiinum  and  lead.  It  is  a  dangerous  acid  to  handle  unless  you  are 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  its  nature.  It  is  used  for  etching  on  cop- 
per, enamel  and  glass. 

Magnesia  Calcine  is  calcined  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  is  sold  in 
commerce  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder. 

Nitric  Acid,  or  aqua  fortis,  may  be  purchased  of  various  colors 
and  degrees  of  strength,  and  it  dissolves  most  of  the  metals.  As  it  is 
frequently  used  in  a  dilute  state,  it  is  well  to   remember  that   water 

SHOULD    NEVER   BE    POURED     INTO   THE    ACID,   but     rather     POUR      THE 

ACID  IN  A  SMALL  STREAM  INTO  THE  WATER,  Stirring  meantime  with  a 
glass  rod.  As  this  and  other  acids  heat  rapidly,  it  is  well  to  place  the 
vessel,  while  mixing,  in  another  vessel  filled  with  water. 

Oxalic  Acid  of  commerce  is  sold  in  the  form  of  white  crystals,  and 
is  very  poisonous. 

Potassium  Cyanide  of  commerce  is  a  colorless  salt  having  an 
odor  somewhat  similar  to  prussic  acid.  It  is  highly  poisonous.  Solu- 
tions of  potassium  cyanide  will  dissolve  metallic  silver.  It  is  used  in 
electro-plating,  and  the  plating  is  more  or  less  effective,  depending  on 
the  power  of  the  solution  of  the  salts  to  dissolve  the  cyanides  of  gold 
and  silver. 

Potassium  Bicarbonate  of  commerce  is  a  colorless  crystal.  This 
salt  is  soluble  in  tepid  water. 

Potassium  Bitartrate,  or  tartar,  is  a  salt  produced  from  the  crys- 
tals found  on  the  sides  of  wine  casks.  When  purified  it  is  known  as 
cream  of  tartar.     It  is  acid,  and  is  slightly  soluble  in  water. 

Potassium  Hydroxide,  or  caustic  potash  of  commerce,  is  sold  in 
the  form  of  small  sticks,  which  must  be  kept  in  air-tight  bottles. 

Potassium  Nitrate,  or  saltpetre,  is  used  as  a  flux,  and  as  it  readily 
yields  a  portion  of  its  oxygen  to  other  bodies,  it  is  used  extensively  for 
oxydizing  metals. 

Potassium  Sulphide  is  a  salt  which  in  commerce  is  sold  in  brovin 
masses,  and  is  sometimes  called  liver  of  sulphur. 


Adams.  8 

Prussic  Acid,  or  hydrocjanic  acid,  should  be  used  with  the  greatest 
care,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  substances  used  in  the  art.  It  may 
be  distinguished  by  its  smell,  which  resembles  that  of  peach  pits,  apple 
seeds  or  bitter  almonds,  arid,  in  fact,  these  substances  owe  their  peculiar 
odor  to  the  presence,  in  small  quantities,  of  this  acid.  It  is  used  for  de- 
composing the  alkaline  carbonates  formed  in  baths  with  cyanide  of 
potassium,  and  for  maintaining  the  strength  of  the  hypophosphite  of 
gold  in  immersion  baths. 

Sal-Ammoniac,  or  Chloride  of  Ammonium,  is  used  as  a  flux  in 
soldering  tin  and  other  metals  in  the  form  of  a  paste  obtained  by 
combining  with  sweet  oil.  It  is  also  used  in  battery  solutions  in  electro- 
plating. 

Sodium  Bicarbonate  corresponds  in  properties  very  closely  with 
potassium  bicarbonate. 

Sodium  Hydroxide  of  commerce  is  solid,  in  thick  white  masses, 
and  is  readily  converted  into  carbonate  of  soda  by  the  absorption  of  car- 
bonic acid  from  the  air. 

Sodium  Pyrophosphate  of  commerce  is  sold  in  the  form  of  a 
white  salt  which  is  soluble  in  water. 

Sodium  Phosphate  of  commerce  is  usually  sold  in  the  form  of 
crystals.    It  is  used  in  hot  electro-gilding  baths. 

Sulphuric  Acid  or  oil  of  vitriol  is  a  colorless,  odorless  fluid.  Like 
nitric  acid,  it  should  be  carefully  mixed  when  diluting  with  water,  and 
the  same  water-bath  used. 

Tartaric  Acid  of  commerce  is  usually  sold  in  the  form  of  crystals 
and  also  in  the  form  of  a  powder.  Solutions  of  this  acid  should  only  be 
prepared  for  immediate  use,  as  it  readily  decomposes. 

ADAMS,  J.   C.     Born    In  Preble,  N.  Y.,  October  7,  1834.    A-s    a 
watch  factory  organizer  he  has  probably  had  more  experience  than  any 
living  man.    He  served  a  five  years'  apprenticeship 
to  John  H.  Atkins,  an  old  Liverpool  watchmaker, 
then  located  in  Elgin,  111.     After  serving  his  appren- 
ticeship he  worked  for  two   years  as  watchmaker 
for  I.  E.  Spalding,  Janesville,  Wis.     He  was  after- 
wards engaged  in  business  in  Elgin,  the  firm  being 
known  as  G.  B.  &  J.  C.  Adams.    The  partnership 
'  was  dissolved    at  the  end  of    two  years,  and    he 
accepted  a  position  in  the  watch  department  of  Hoard 
&  Hoes,  Chicago.      In  1861  he  had  the  management 
J.  C.  Adams.       of  the  watch  department  of  W.  H.  &,  C.  Miller,  the 
largest  jewelry  store  in  Chicago.     In  1862  he  was  appointed  time-keeper 
for  the  various  roads  centering  in  Chicago.     In   1864,  together  with 


d  Adendum  Circle. 

Charles  S.  Moseley  and  P.  S.  Bartlett,  he  organized  the  Elgin  Watch 
Company.  In  1869,  together  with  Paul  Cornell,  he  organized  the  Cornell 
Watch  Company  of  Grand  Crossing,  111.  One  of  the  movements 
made  by  this  company  bore  his  name.  In  1869,  together  with  Spring- 
field capitalists,  he  organized  the  Illinois  Watch  Company.  In  1874  he 
organized  the  Adams  &  Perry  Manufacturing  Company.  In  1883  and 
1884  he  was  in  the  employ  of  the  Independent  Watch  Company  of 
Fredonia,  N.  Y.  In  1885  he  organized  the  Peoria  Watch  Company  of 
Peoria,  111.,  and  remained  with  that  company  until  April  14,  1888.  He 
is  the  inventor  and  patentee  of  the  Adams  System  of  Time  Records,  now 
used  by  nearly  every  western  railroad. 

ADENDUM  CIRCLE.    The  distance  or  space  between  the  pitch 

line  of  a  gear  and  the  circle  touching  the  ends  of  the  teeth.  . 

ADHESION.  Adhesion  is  the  mutual  attraction  which  two  bodies 
have  for  one  another,  as  attraction  between  the  liquid  and  the  substance 
of  the  vessel  containing  it.  See  also  Oil  and  Capillarity.  Saunier  says 
that  the  working  parts  in  contact  with  each  other  should  separate  by 
sliding  action  and  not  by  a  sudden  drawing  asunder  in  a  direction  per- 
pendicular to  their  touching  surfaces,  as  such  an  action  would  involve 
the  inconvenience  of  variable  resistances,  depending  on  the  greater  or 
less  adhesion  or  cohesion  of  these  surfaces.  The  amount  of  adhesion 
between  clean  surfaces  is  difficult  to  determine  and  it  is  impossible  to 
give  its  exact  proportion.  In  the  case  of  oiled  surfaces  the  resistance 
due  to  adhesion  is  proportional  to  the  extent  of  the  surfaces  in  contact. 

ADJUSTING  ROD,  A  device  for  testing  the  pull  of  the  main- 
spring. 

ADJUSTMENT.  The  manipulation  of  the  balance,  its  spring  and 
staff,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  time-keeping  qualities  of  a  watch. 
Three  adjustments  are  usually  employed  for  this  purpose,  viz. :  positions, 
isochronism  and  compensation. 

Adjustment  to  Positions.  The  manipulation  of  the  hairspring 
and  balance  so  that  the  movement  keeps  time  in  the  different  positions. 
In  ordinary  watches  two  positions  are  taken,  viz.;  pendant  up  or  vertical 
and  dial  up  or  horizontal.  In  the  finer  grade  of  work  adjustments  are 
made  in  the  quarters,  that  is,  with  3  up  and  9  up.  This  adjustment  is  a 
delicate  and  often  a  difficult  operation  and  it  is  only  by  constant  study 
and  application  that  the  watchmaker  can  hope  for  success.  Several 
excellent  essays  on  this  subject  are  in  print,  among  which  may  be  men- 
tioned Modern  Horology  in  Theory  and  Practice  and  the  Watchmaker's 
Hand  Book  by  Claudius  Saunier,  the  Watch  Adjuster's  Manual  by 
Charles  Edgar  Fritts,  and  Adjustments  to  Positions,  Isochronism  and 
Compensation,  published  by  G.  K.  Hazlitt  &  Co.,  Chicago.  Isochronal 


Adjustment.  10 

adjustments  are  thoroughly  reviewed  in  an  excellent  little  work  by 
Moritz  Immisch  entitled  Prize  Essay  on  the  Balance  Spring.  The  object 
of  timing  or  adjusting  to  positions  is  to  ascertain  how  far  a  change  of 
position  modifies  the  compensation  and  isochronism  and  to  verify  the 
poising  of  the  balance.  Saunier  says  the  balance  can  not  possibly  be 
accurately  poised  in  all  positions  if  the  pivots  and  pivot  holes  are  not 
perfectly  xound,  and  the  poising  will  be  modified  with  a  change  of  tern- 
perature  if  the  two  arms  do  not  act  identically;  as  will  be  the  case  when 
the  metals  are  not  homogeneous,  when  one  or  both  arms  have  been 
strained  owing  to  want  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman,  or  careless 
work,  etc.  After  accurately  timing  in  a  vertical  position  with  XII.  up, 
make  it  go  for  twelve  hours  with  VI.  up  and  the  same  number  of  hours 
with  III.  and  IX.  up.  Observe  with  care  both  the  rates  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  arcs  and  note  them  down.  Assuming  the  pivots  and  pivot 
holes  to  be  perfectly  round  and  in  good  condition  and  that  the  poising  of 
the  balance  has  been  previously  tested  with  care  by  the  ordinary  means, 
if  the  variations  in  the  four  positions  are  slight  the  poising  may  be 
regarded  as  satisfactory.  As  a  general,  but  not  invariable  rule,  a  loss  in 
one  position  on  the  rate  observed  in  the  inverse  position  may 
be  taken  to  indicate  that  the  weight  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
balance  is  excessive  when  it  does  not  vibrate  through  an  arc  of 
360°  or  the  lower  part  if  the  arcs  of  motion  exceed  this  amount.  Inde- 
pendently of  the  balance  this  loss  may  be  occasioned  by  excessive  fric- 
tion of  the  pivots  due  to  a  too  great  pressure  owing  to  the  caliper  being 
faulty,  or  to  a  distortion  of  the  hairspring  causing  its  center  of  gravity 
to  lie  out  of  the  axis  of  the  balance.  If  these  influences  become  at  all 
considerable  their  correction  will  be  beyond  the  power  of  the  isochronal 
iiairspring,  and  indeed  it  will  be  impossible  to  counteract  them.  Changes 
in  the  rate  on  changing  from  the  vertical  to  the  horizontal  position  may 
also  arise  from  the  following  causes:  i.  The  action  of  the  escape  wheel, 
which  is  different  according  as  it  tends  to  raise  the  balance  staff  or  to 
force  it  laterally.  2.  A  hairspring  that  starts  to  one  side  and  so  displaces 
ita  center  of  gravity,  a  balance  that  is  not  well  poised,  pivots  or  pivot 
holes  that  are  not  perfectly  round,  faults  which  although  of  but  little 
importance  in  the  vertical  position  of  the  balance  staff  become  serious 
when  it  is  horizontal.  3.  The  more  marked  portion  of  the  friction  of 
the  pivots  may  take  place  against  substances  of  different  degrees  of  hard- 
ness in  the  two  cases,  the  end  stones  being  frequently  harder  than  the 
jewels.  Saunier  further  says  that  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained  in 
most  cases  by  employing  the  following  methods,  either  separately  or  two 
or  more  together,  according  to  the  results  of  experiments  or  the  rates, 
the  experience  and  the  judgment  of  the  workman: 

I.  Flatten  slightly  the  ends  of  the  balance  pivots  so  as  to  increase 
their  radii  of  friction;  when  the  watch  is  lying  fiat  the  friction  will  thus 
become  greater. 


11  Adjustment. 

i.  'Let  the  thickness  of  the  jewel  holes  be  no  more  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary.  It  is  sometimes  thought  sufficient  to  chamfer  the 
jewel  hole  so  as  to  reduce  the  surface  on  which  friction  occurs ;  but  this 
does  not  quite  meet  the  case  since  an  appreciable  column  of  oil  is  main- 
tained against  the  pivot. 

3.  Reduce  the  diameters  of  the  pivots,  of  course  changing  the  jewel 
holes.  The  resistance  due  to  friction,  when  the  watch  is  vertical,  increases 
rapidly  with  any  increase  in  the  diameters  of  pivots. 

4.  Let  the  hairspring  be  accurately  centered,  or  it  must  usually  be  so 
placed  that  the  lateral  pull  tends  to  lift  the  balance  when  the  watch  is 
hanging  vertical.  In  this  and  the  next  succeeding  case  it  would  some- 
times be  advantageous  to  be  able  to  change  the  point  at  which  it  is  fixed, 
but  this  is  seldom  possible. 

5.  Replace  the  hair-spring  by  one  that  is  tonger  or  shorter  but  of 
the  same  strength;  this  is  with  a  view  to  increase  or  diminish  the 
lateral  pressure  in  accordance  with  the  explanation  given  in  the  last 
paragraph. 

6.  Set  the  escapement  so  that  the  strongest  impulse  corresponds  with 
the  greatest  resistance  of  the  balance. 

7.  Replace  the  balance.  A  balance  that  is  much  too  heavy  renders 
the  timing  for  positions  impossible. 

8.  Lastly,  when  these  methods  are  inapplicable  or  insufficient  there 
only  remains  the  very  common  practice  of  throwing  the  balance  out  of 
poise. 

Adjustment  to  Isochronism.  The  manipulation  of  the  hair- 
spring so  that  the  long  and  short  arcs  of  the  balance  are  performed  in  the 
same  time.  The  theory  of  isochronism  advanced  by  Dr.  Robert  Hooke 
and  more  commonly  known  as  Hooke's  law,  "  as  the  tension  so  is  the 
force,"  is  an  axiom  in  mechanics  with  which  everybody  is,  or  should  be 
familiar.  This  law  has  like  nearly  all  others  its  exceptions,  and  it 
is  only  partially  true  as  applied  to  hair-springs  of  watches;  "otherwise,' 
says  Glasgow,  "every  spring  would  be  isochronous."  Pierre  Le  Roy 
says  that  there  is  in  every  spring,  of  a  sufficient  extent,  a  certain  length 
where  all  the  vibrations,  long  or  short,  great  or  small,  are  isochronous, 
and  that  this  length  being  secured,  if  you  shorten  the  spring  the  great 
vibrations  will  be  quicker  than  the  small  ones ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  is 
lengthened,  the  small  arcs  will  be  performed  in  less  time  than  the  great 
ones.  Glasgow  says  that  a  hair-spring  of  whatever  form  to  be  isochron- 
ous must  satisfy  the  following  conditions:  Its  center  of  gravity  must 
always  be  on  the  axis  of  the  balance,  and  it  must  expand  and  contract  in 
the  vibrations  concentrically  with  that  axis.  When  these  conditions  are 
secured  in  a  properly  made  spring  it  will  possess  the  quality  of  isochron- 
ism, that  is,  its  force  will  increase  in  proportion  to  the  tension,  and  it 
wHl  not  exert  any  lateral  pressure  on  the  pivots. 


Adjustment  Heater. 


1& 


Britten  says,  it  should  be  remembered  that  if  the  vibrations  of  a  balance 
are  to  be  isochronous  the  impulse  must  be  delivered  in  the  middle  of  it» 
vibration,  and  that  therefore  no  spring  will  be  satisfactory  if  the  escape- 
ment i»  defective  in  this  particular. 

The  recognized  authorities  conflict  considerably  in  their  various  theo- 
ries in  regard  to  adjustment  to  isochronism  and  particularly  in  regard  to 
the  length  of  spring.  Immisch  says  that  mere  length  has  nothing  to  do 
with  isochronism.  Glasgow  contends  that  length  has  everything  to  do 
with  it,  and  that  a  spring  too  short,  whatever  its  form,  would  make  the 
short  arcs  of  the  balance  vibration  be  performed  in  a  less  time  than  the 
long  arcs,  and  a  spring  too  long  would  have  just  the  contrary  effect. 
Charles  Frodsham  advanced  the  theory  that  every  length  of  spring  has 
its  isochronous  point.  Britten  declares  the  length  is  all  important;  that 
a  good  length  of  spring  for  one  variety  of  escapement  is  entirely  unfitted 
for  another  variety.  Saunier  says  that  the  discussion  of  the  question 
whether  short  springs  are  preferable  to  long  ones  is  a  mere  waste  of 

time  and  can  result  in  no 
good.  In  horology  every- 
thing must  be  relative. 
Whatever  be  the  escape- 
ment under  considera- 
tion, it  requires  neither 
a  long  nor  a  short  hair- 
spring, but  one  that  is 
suited  to  its  nature  and 
mode  of  action,  that  is  to 
say,  the  lengl  h  must  bear 
a  definite  relation  to  the 
extent  of  the  arcs  of 
vibration,  etc. 

Owing  to  the  conflict 
of  opinion  it  is  advisable 
that  the  student  read  the 
various  arguments  set 
forth  in  the  works  re- 
ferred  to  above  and  form 
his  own  conclusions. 

ADJUSTMENT 
HEATER.  The  Simp- 
son heater,  shown  in 
Fig.  2,  will  be  found 
invaluable  when  adjust- 
ing movements  to  temperature.  The  variation  of  temperature  in  this 
heater  is  one  and  one-half  degrees  in  twenty-four  hours.    It  is  designed 


IS 


Alarm. 


to  be  heated  by  gas,  the  cost  of  heating  being  but  about  three  cents 
in  twenty-four  hours.  A  small  lamp  can  be  used  if  the  watchmaker 
has  no  gas  at  command. 

ALARM.  The  mechanism  attached  to  a  timepiece  by  which  at  any 
desired  time  a  hammer  strikes  rapidly  on  a  bell  for  several  seconds. 
Generally  a  weight  or  spring  actuates  an  escape  wheel,  to  the  pallet  staff 
of  which  a  hammer  is  fixed  to  act  on  a  bell.  The  alarm  is  usually  setoff 
by  a  wire  attached  to  the  hour  wheel  lifting  a  detent  that  stops  the  escape 
wheel. 

ALCOHOL  OR  BENZINE  CUP.  The  watchmaker  should 
keep  the  alcohol  and  benzine  on  his  bench  in  a  glass 
cup  having  a  tight  fitting  cover  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion and  contamination  with  dust.  It  also  adds  to 
the  appearance  of  his  bench  and  is  a  great  improve- 
ment over  an  old  saucer  and  bottle.  The  cup  shown 
in  Fig.  3  has  a  ground  glass  cover  or  stopper  that 
fits  tightly  into  the  neck  of  the  cup. 

ALCOHOL  LAMP.  The  Clark  patent  simplicity 
lamp  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  a  favorite  one  with  American  watchmakers. 
It  has  nine  facets  on  the  font  that  it  may  readily  be  adjusted  to  any 
required  position.  The  wicks  of  alcohol  lamps 
should  not  be  too  tight,  and  the  interior  and 
exterior  of  the  font  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt. 
The  Clark  lamp  should  not  be  filled  more  than 
one-third  full.  The  wick  should  be  removed  when 
it  gets  so  short  that  it  fails  to  reach  well  down  into 
the  alcohol. 

ALL  OR   NOTHING  PIECE.    That  part  of 
a  repeating  watch  that  keeps  the  quarter  rack  oflf  Fig-  *■ 

the  snail  until  the  slide  in  the  band  of  the  case  is  pushed  around.  The 
lifting  piece  of  the  hour  hammer  is  kept  free  from  the  twelve-toothed 
ratchet,  while  the  quarter  rack  is  locked,  so  that  the  hours  eannot  be 
struck  until  the  quarter  rack  has  fallen.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
hooking  spring.     It  was  invented  by  Julien  Le  Roy. 

ALLOY.  A  compound  of  two  or  more  metals.  It  is  usual  to  melt 
the  less  fusible  metal  first  and  add  the  more  fusible. 

Alloys  for  Compensation  Balances.  Breguet  used  for  his 
compensation  balances  the  following  alloy:  Silver,  two  parts,  by  weight; 
copper,  two  parts;  zinc,  one  part.  First  melt  the  silver  and  throw  in  the 
zinc,  reduced  to  small  pieces,  stirring  the  metals  and  leaving  it  on  the 
fire  for  as  short  a  time  as  possible  to  prevent  the  volatilization  of  the 
latter  m«t»l ;  then  pour  it  out  and  let  it  get  cold.    Melt  tire  dopfW  »nd 


Alloys.  14 

add  the  cold  alloy,  stirring  the  three  together  until  intimately  mixed. 
Pour  out,  cut  into  pieces,  and  smelt  anew,  to  obtain  a  perfect  incorpora- 
tion. Be  careful,  however,  to  leave  the  alloy  as  short  a  time  as  possible 
over  the  fire,  because  the  zinc  dissipates  easily.  This  alloy  is  hard, 
elastic,  very  ductile,  and  quickly  smelts  in  the  furnace.  It  does  not  stand 
much  hammering. 

Alloy  for  Composition  Files.  These  files,  which  are  frequently 
used  by  watchmakers  and  other  metal  workers,  for  grinding  and  polish- 
ing, and  the  color  of  which  resembles  silver,  are  composed  of  8  parts 
copper,  2  parts  tin,  i  part  zinc,  i  part  lead.  They  are  cast  in  forms  and 
treated  upon  the  grindstone;  the  metal  is  very  hard, and  therefore  worked 
with  difficulty  with  the  file. 

Aluminium*  Alloys.  Aluminium  is  alloyed  with  mnny  metals, 
but  the  most  important  are  those  with  copper.  Lange  &  Sons  have 
obtained  a  patent  in  the  United  States  for  an  alloy  consisting  of  ninety- 
five  parts  of  aluminium  and  five  of  copper,  which  is  malleable  and  is 
used  for  clock  springs.  An  alloy  of  ten  parts  of  aluminium  and  ninety 
of  copper  is  hard  but  nevertheless  ductile.  It  takes  a  high  polish  and 
somewhat  resembles  gold. 

Aluminium  Bronze.  This  alloy  contains  from  6  to  lo  per  cent, 
of  aluminium,  and  is  prepared  by  fusing  chemically-pure  copper  with 
aluminium.  The  standard  bronze  in  use  consists  of  ninety  parts  of 
copper  to  ten  of  aluminium.  It  gives  sharp  castings,  is  easier  to  work 
than  steel,  can  be  engraved,  rolled  into  sheets  or  drawn  into  wire  and 
when  exposed  to  the  air  suffers  less  change  than  cast  iron,  steel,  silver 
or  brass.     It  can  be  soldered  only  with  an  aluminium  alloy. 

Aluminium  Silver.  Aluminium  and  silver  are  easily  alloyed  and 
these  alloys  are  more  easily  worked  than  silver  although  harder.  An 
alloy  of  ninety  seven  parts  aluminium  and  three  of  silver  is  not  affected 
by  ammonium  hydrosulphide  and  has  a  beautiful  color.  An  alloy  of 
ninety-five  parts  of  aluminium  and  five  of  silver  is  white,  elastic  and 
hard.     It  is  used  for  making  blades  of  desert  and  fruit  knives. 

Aluminium  Gold.  One  part  of  aluminium  to  99  of  gold  gives  a 
metal  the  color  of  green  gold,  very  hard  but  not  ductile.  An  alloy  of  5 
parts  of  aluminium  to  95  parts  of  gold  gives  an  alloy  that  is  nearly  as 
brittle  as  glass.  An  alloy  of  10  parts  of  aluminium  to  90  parts  of  gold 
is  white,  crystalline  and  brittle.  An  imitation  of  gold,  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  precious  mfetal  in  cheap  jewelry,  is  made  by  fusing 
together  .5  to  'j%  parts  of  aluminium,  90  to  100  parts  of  copper  and  2}4 
of  gold.  The  color  of  this  alloy  resembles  gold  so  closely  as  to  almdst 
dffy.  detection.  ..... 


15 


Alloys. 


Nurnburg  Gold 

Oreide 

Prince's   Metal 

Soft  Solder 

White  Metal 

Alloy  for  Tea  Pots 

Alloy  for  Knives  and  Forks. . 

Alloy  for  Opera  Glasses 

Alloy  Resembling  Silver 

Alloy  Resembling  Silver 

Alloy  for  Gongs  and  Bells 

Alloy,  Non. Magnetic 

Bell  Metal,  American 

Bell  Metal,  Japanese 

Bronze,  Japanese 

Bronze,  Manganese.. 

Bronze  for   Medals. 

Bronze  for  Ornaments 

Bronze,    Paris   ...        . ,. 

Clock  Bells,  German 

Clock  Bells,  Swiss 

Clock  Bells,  French 

Clock  Wheels,  Black  Forest.. 

r 
0 

>    3 
r    o 

^  H 

r    0 

M 

;;;;;;; 

>>•<••<••        ^ 

1     1     1     1     •     '     1     1     1     ■     1     cni     I     >     1     '     • 

I     I     I     I     I     I     I     1     I      I     I      O   I     1     I     I     I     I 

1     1     1     •     1     ^ 

'     ' 0»  •     '     '     1     '     ' 

Palladium. 

Aluminium. 

1    !    I    I    I    N)I 

Gold. 

'::;;:; 

^s .     .     1     .     .     . 

I  "-I  I  I  I  I  I  I     I  ?:  I  I  I  ;  I 

'     >u 1     '     en-     p  .     .     .     1     1     , 

1      ,^1      <      1      1      1      1      1            ■      tSi      I      •     1      1      1 
'            ' Oi  .      1      •     .      ■      1 

Silver. 

I  *^ '  I  I  I 

i  i  i  i  i  i  ;  i  ;J  i  i  i  i  i  i  i  i 

Bismuth. 

1  I     PI 

♦^                       1                 !         !    '             oo 
H"  OS      ro  ^          !    t*^          1         I    1             oc 

COCn»C*^^              1      CO        ►-»'      to  1      '      ^S^i^ 

ososojcooco^'    oscok-*'    ot  •        OCOT 

Tin. 

I       I   "-^  I       oc '   ;             '             I   I   :   I       'I 
1       I   CO  1       3s ;   !       4"     I       '"'     I   I   1   I       I   I    ?o 

-Ji      Oil      C»i      tOQDi      1      l^CO  —  •      to  CD        1      1      1      1      Ml      1      CO 
to.      Oi      W'      CnOO'      1      "-500CD        OCi  —  '      1      '      1      O-      '      rfi. 

Zinc. 

I         .     I    1     !    !     !     1         !>-»•:!              1    1     .    '     ■     '     '     ' 
I          I     I     I     I     I     I     I          I     (M       '     I     <=^       I     I     I     I     I     I     I     i 
•OS       <     •     <     i           •     en       ^tO-           tDtO>-->'>' 

Lead. 

I             a>          a>              o          en  00          ^               '    ' 
-3.             9^          o-io          rf^to          oi_i          IIo 
w      o      io«oc;TC3>-3'*^-305a)Co»-3i-'o:ccoi:;iCTi    ■    oc 
O'    ocs>-'OOo;^^o^t^Ol^^oo^^o»oo•oc;IT'         qd 

Copper. 

9.53 

Antimony. 

I  I  i  I  P.  ;      I  I  ;  ;  ;  1  ;  o.  ;  ;  ;      i  ;  i  ; 

1    1    .    1    tai    1    :ci.    1 oi.    .    1    1        1111 

'       '             •tP.'-rfk .C;j..i.C;j.ii. 

Iron. 

•  i    I    I    '    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    I    ta      1 

•  ■ •            O"-* 

Platinum. 

l-kiiiii              ■iiii>IiiiiiI_^tl_L|_>I 

(f». ta 1    1    1    1    1    1    1    Oi ,    oo" 

O en'                      •     '     '      en       ^O' 

Nickel. 

mI      i       I       I      I 
O-     '     ■           • 

::  i  i"'';'  i  •';;;'"  ' 

Black  Cobalt- 
ic  Oxide. 

I      1     1     I     I      I 

I  1  •  I  1  >  1  <  <^ .  1  1  1  I           II 

1      '      1      '      <      1      1      '      C( 1.1 

;;;;;:'■    c-T       ■       •    i*^^'       ■ 

O                         '      C  Cn  ■            ■ 

Manganese. 

1    l.^'     .     1     1 

'!•'':;';;■'  i  .:';  i  ^  i 

Cadmium. 

Alloys.  16 

Alloys  of  Gold  used  by  Jewelers. 


COLOR. 

GOLD. 

SILVER. 

COPPER. 

CADMIUM. 

STEEL. 

Blue 

250 
5iH} 
SIK) 
8o7 
725 
7S0 
750 
746 
666 
750 
600 
583 
583 
666 
750 
583 
666 

•250 

Blue 

250 

Gray 

2U0 

Gray 

86 
875 
125 
166 
114 

67 
104 
200 

42 
250 

m 

146 
125 
333 

57 

Gray 

125 
84 
43 

Green 

Green 

97 
268 
146 
200 
375 
167 
139 
104  _ 
892 

Red 

Red 

Red,  Pale 

Red,  Very 

Yellow.... 

Yellow 

Yellow 

Yellow,  Dark 

Yellow,  Pale 

The  alloys  of  gold  should  not  be  overheated  and  ought  to  be  poured 
immediately  after  the  proper  fusion  has  taken  place.  The  mixture 
should  be  well  stirred  from  time  to  time  after  it  has  commenced  to  melt, 
using  a  cherry  red  iron  rod,  or  a  stick  of  very  dry  poplar  or  other  slow 
burning  wood.  This  serves  two  purposes;  it  makes  the  metal 
homogeneous  in  its  composition  .and  it  enables  the  operator  to 
judge  by  the  feeling  when  the  mass  is  thoroughly  melted.  As 
long  as  the  metal  feels  curdy  or  cloggy,  it  is  unfit  to  pour;  when  the 
stirred  mass  feels  thin  and  watery  it  should  be  thoroughly  agitated, 
fresh  charcoal  added,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a  minute,  then  poured. 

In  melting  silver  alloys,  great  care  and  strict  attention  to  the  points 
given  below  are  necessary  in  order  to  secure  homogeneous  alloys  of  the 
proportions  required.  Especially  is  this  the  case  when  the  alloys  con- 
tain the  more  readily  oxidizable  metals,  such  as  zinc  and  tin.  The 
weighing  of  the  metals,  the  arrangement  of  them  in  the  crucible,  the 
management  during  the  time  they  are  in  the  furnace,  all  are  points 
requiring  steady  care  and  constant  attention  to  produce  accurate  results. 

When  the  alloy  consists  only  of  copper  and  silver  they  should  both 
be  put  in  the  crucible  before  putting  it  in  the  furnace.  Put  the  copper 
at  the  bottom  and  the  silver  over  it,  as  copper  has  the  highest  melting 
point  and  the  heat  is  greatest  at  the  bottom ;  then,  too,  the  silver  being 
the  heaviest,  will  descend  through  the  copper  when  melting,  thus  produc- 
ing a  more  perfect  mixing  than  when  the  copper  is  placed  on  the  top. 

Alloys  Resembling  Silver.  The  following  alloys  have  a  close  resem- 
blance to  silver :  Minargent  is  composed  of  lOO  parts  copper;  70  nickel ; 
I  aluminium  and  5  of  tungstate  of  iron.  Trabak  metal  is  composed  of 
tin  87.5,  nickel  5.5,  antimony  5  and  bismuth  2.  Warne  metal  is  com- 
posed of  tin  10,  t>l8muth  7,  nickel  7  and  cobalt  3. 


17  Alloys. 

Aluminium  Zinc.  Alloys  of  aluminium  and  zinc  are  very  hard 
and  take  a  beautiful  polish.  An  alloy  of  97  parts  of  aluminium  and  3  of 
zinc  gives  a  result  that  is  as  white  as  the  pure  metal,  harder  than  alu- 
minium and  very  ductile. 

Artificial  Gold.  A  metallic  alloy,  at  present  very  extensively  used 
in  France  as  a  substitute  for  gold  is  composed  of:  Pure  copper,  100 
parts;  zinc,  or  preferably  tin,  17  parts;  magnesia,  6  parts;  sal-ammoniac. 
3  to  6  parts;  quicklime,  }i  part;  tartar  of  commerce,  9  parts,  are  mixed 
as  follows:  The  copper  is  first  melted,  and  the  magnesia,  sal-ammoniac, 
lime  and  tartar  are  then  added  separately  and  by  degrees,  in  the  form  of 
powder ;  the  whole  is  now  briskly  stirred  for  about  one-half  hour,  so  as 
to  mix  thoroughly,  and  then  the  zinc  is  added  in  small  grains  by  throw- 
ing it  on  the  surface  and  stirring  until  it  is  entirely  fused ;  the  crucible  is 
then  covered  and  fusion  is  maintained  for  about  35  minutes.  The  sur- 
face is  then  skimmed  and  the  alloy  ready  for  coating.  It  has  a  fine 
grain,  is  malleable,  and  takes  a  splendid  polish.  It  does  not  corrode 
readily,  and  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  gold  for  many  purposes.  When 
tarnished,  its  brilliancy  can  be  restored  by  a  little  acidulated  water. 
If  tin  be  employed  instead  of  zinc,  the  alloy  will  be  more  brilliant. 

Bell  Metal.  An  alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  in  proportions  varying 
from  66  to  80  per  cent  of  copper  and  the  balance  of  tin. 

Brass.  An  alloy  consisting  of  about  65  parts  of  copper  to  35  parts  of 
zinc.  This  proportion  is  varied  according  to  the  uses  to  which  the  alloy 
is  to  be  put.     See  Bronzing,  Plating  and  Coloring  Metals. 

Brittania.  This  alloy  as  prepared  by  KoUer  consists  of  85.72  parts 
of  tin,  10.34  of  antimony,  0.78  of  copper  and  2.91  of  zinc. 

Chrysorine.  This  alloy  is  sometimes  used  for  watch  cases  and  parts 
of  the  movement.  In  color  it  closely  resembles  18  to  20  carat  gold.  It 
does  not  tarnish  when  exposed  to  the  air  and  has  a  beautiful  luster.  It 
consists  of  100  parts  of  copper  and  50  of  zinc. 

Fictitious  Silver.  No.  i:  Silver,  i  oz. ;  nickel,  i  oz.,  11  dwts,; 
copper,  2  oz.  9  dwts. ;  No.  2,  silver  3  oz. ;  nickel,  i  oz.  11  dwts.;  copper, 
2  oz  9  dwts.;  spelter  lo  dwts. 

Malleable  Brass.  A  malleable  brass  is  obtained  by  alloying  33 
parts  of  copper  and  25  parts  zinc ;  the  copper  is  first  thrown  into  the  pot, 
which  is  covered  slightly  and  fused.  As  soon  as  the  copper  is  smelted, 
the  zinc,  to  be  free  from  sulphur,  is  added,  and  cast  into  ingots. 

Aluminium.  Aluminium,  or  aluminum,  is  an  extremely  light,  duc- 
tile and  malleable  metal,  which  is  rapidly  coming  into  favor  for  many 
purposes  since  the  great  improvements  in  its  manufacture  and  the  conse- 
quent reduction  in  cost.     It  can  now  be  purchased  in  quantities  at  ninety 


Amalgam.  18 

cents  per  pound,  -which  makes  it  nearljr  as  cheap  as  copper,  when  the 
great  difference  in  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  two  metals  is  considered. 
It  is  silvery  in  appearance,  melts  at  1,300  degrees  F.,  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  2.56  to  2.60,  which  is  one-fourth  the  weight  of  silver,  does  not 
oxidize  readily  and  resists  most  acids  and  alkalies,  but  is  very  easilv 
attacked  by  others,  especially  when  heated,  or  when  present  during 
chemical  reactions  on  other  metals.  It  is  three  times  as  ductile  as 
silver,  and  has  50  per  cent,  more  tenacity  or  strength.  Much  nonsense 
has  been  written  about  this  metal,  such  as  that  it  is  stronger  than  steel ; 
will  not  rust;  is  not  attacked  by  acids,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  untrue.  It 
is  readily  attacked  by  many  chlorides,  such  as  common  salt  (chloride  of 
sodium),  etc.,  and  by  some  of  the  organic  acids,  in  which  respect  it 
resembles  silver.  In  regard  to  the  hardening,  tempering,  etc.,  of  the  pure 
metal,  comparatively  little  is  known  at  present;  but  it  is  probable  that 
as  its  use  becomes  more  common  it  will  be  greatly  improved  in  these 
respects,  as  has  been  done  with  iron.  At  all  events,  it  will  have  an 
extended  trial  in  the  fine  arts  and  mechanics,  and  it  will  probably  displace 
platinum  and  nickel  in  the  various  alloys  to  some  extent,  on  account  of 
the  great  difference  in  weight.  One  great  difficulty  remaining  to  be  over- 
come is  that  of  soldering.  At  present  it  can  be  soldered  only  by  using  an 
alloy  of  which  aluminium  forms  a  part. 

Aluminium  forms  alloys  with  many  metals ;  those  with  copper,  silver 
and  tin  are  largely  employed  for  many  purposes,  and  their  use  is  rapidly 
extending.  The  most  important  are  those  of  copper,  with  which  alumin- 
ium easily  unites.     See  Alloys. 

AMALGAM.  A  compound  of  mercury  with  another  metal ;  as  an 
amalgam  of  tin. 

AMPLITUDE.  The  full  extent  or  breadth.  As  applied  to  pendu- 
lums, the  amplitude  of  a  simple  oscillation  or  vibration ;  properly  the  dis- 
tance from  the  middle  to  the  extremity  of  an  oscillation,  but  the  term  is 
usually  applied  to  the  distance  from  one  extremity  of  the  »wing  to  the 
other. 

ANCHOR  ESCAPEMENT.  This  form  of  escapement  is  mostly 
used  in  clocks,  although  in  the  older  watches  a  variety  of  lever 
escapement  was  also  known  as  the  anchor  escapement  and  was  so 
called  because  of  the  resemblance  of  the  earliest  forms  to  a  ship's 
anchor.  The  variety  of  forms  in  this  escapement  are  innumerable, 
and  include  both  the  dead  beat  and  recoil  escapements.  Likejnany 
other  inventions  in  horology,  neither  the  inventor  nor  the  date  of  this 
escapement  is  known  with  certainty,  the  two  claimants  for  the  honor 
being  Hooke  and  Clement,  the  latter  a  London  clockmaker,  in  the 
years  1675  to  1680. 

The  imperfect  escapement  in  use  at  the  time  of  the  application 


19 


Anchor  Escapement. 


of  the  pendulum  to  clocks  was  the  source  of  much  annoyance  and 
the  clockmaker  was  constantly  on  the  alert  for  an  escapement  which 
would  give  to  the  pendulum  a  more  nearly  isochronous  vibration, 


Fig.  5. 


with  the  result  of  the  invention  of  the  anchor  escapement,  which 
remains  practically  the  same  at  the  present  day.  There  are  clock- 
makers  who  believe  that  the  recoil  escapement  is  preferable  to  the 


Anchor  Escapement. 


dead  beat  escapement,  but  this  is  not  a  fact,  if  proper  care  is  given 
to  every  detail  of  both  the  designing  and  the  execution  of  the  work. 

The  recoil  escapement  was  made  to  overcome  inequalities  in  the 
motive  force,  for  with  this  form  the  pendulum  was  not  so  sensitive  to 
a  change  in  the  motive  power  as  in  the  dead-beat  escapement. 

There  is  a  form  of  clock  escapement  made  which  is  a  combination 
of  the  dead-beat  and  recoil,  being  dead-beat  on  one  pallet  and  recoil 
on  the  other,  and  from  this  circumstance  are  known  as  half  dead- 
beat  or  half  recoil  escapements. 


Fig.  6. 

Fig,  6  illustrates  a  form  of  anchor  escapement  which  is  extensively 
used  in  American  watches. 

Laying  Out  the  Escapement.  In  laying  out  the  escapement  we 
must  first  determine  the  size  of  the  escape  wheel  and  also  the  num- 
ber of  teeth  it  is  to  have.  We  will  make  our  drawing  larger  than 
the  actual  work  is  to  be,  and  then  after  taking  our  measurements 
direct  from  the  drawing,  reduce  them  to  the  actual  working  size.  In 
Fig.  5  the  diameter  of  the  escape  wheel  is  three  inches  and  has  thirty 
teeth  revolving  to  the  right,  so  that  we  may  mount  a  seconds  hand 
upon  the  arbor  if  used  with  a  seconds  pendulum.    In  making  a  draft 


SI 


Angular  Gearing. 


of  any  kind  all  the  lines  should  first  be  drawn  in  with  a  lead  pencil, 
and  then  those  lines  which  are  to  remain  are  to  be  inked  in  with  any 
good  waterproof  India  ink,  Higgins'  American  drawing  ink  bein^  an 
excellent  article  for  the  purpose.    With  the  dividers  set  with  a  radius 
of  one  and  one-half  inches,  draw  a  circle  which  will  represent  the  diam- 
eter of  escape  wheel.     The  distance  between  one  tooth  and  the  next 
equals  three  hundred  and  sixty  degrees  (the  number  in  a  complete 
circle)  divided  by  thirty,  the  number  of  teeth  in  our  escape  wheel,  which 
will  give  us  twelve  degrees  as  the  required  distance  (360 -i-  30=12). 
The  distance  between  the  center  of  the  escape  wheel  and  the  center  of 
the  anchor  equals  the  radius  of  the  escape  wheel  plus  four  tenths  of 
this  radius,  i^  =  |,  ^^  of  |  =  x^and  |  +  j^  =  f ^  =  2^^  the  distance 
required.     This  distance  is  to  be  increased  or  diminished  inversely 
according  as  it  is  desired  to  reduce  or  increase  the  oscillation  of  the 
pendulum.     Draw  a  line  joining  the  center  of  the  anchor  and  the 
center  of  the  escape  wheel,  which  is  the  center  line  of  the  escape- 
ment.    In  laying  off  the  teeth  begin  at  this  center  line,  laying  them 
off  on  either  side  until  completed.    The  back  of  the  teeth  are  to  be 
radial,  while  the  front  faces  are  to  be  of   an  angle  sufficiently  great 
to  give  the  teeth  strength,  yet  not  so  great  that  more  than  the  point 
of  the  tooth  will  at  any  time  strike  the  pallet.     When  this  angle  has 
been  decided  upon,  draw  a  line  representing  the  front  face  of  a  tooth 
and  extend  it  beyond  the  center  of  the  escape  wheel.     Now  draw  a 
circle  to  which  this  line  will  be  a  tangent,  and  all  that  is  necessary  in 
order  to  draw  in  the  rest  of  the  teeth  is  to  place  the  straight  edge  so 
as  to  coincide  with  the  point  of  a  tooth  and  this  circle.     From  the 
center  of  the  anchor  draw  a  circle  of  a  radius  equal  to  half  the  dis- 
tance between  the  anchor  and  escape  wheel  centers.    As  the  anchor 
is  to  embrace  eight  teeth,  we  draw  lines  which  are  tangent  to  this 
circle,  and  touching  the  points  of  the  fourth  tooth  on  each  side  of  the 
center  one,  which  will  give  the  pallet  faces,  if  they  were  left  flat.    By 
curving  the  faces  of   the  pallet  and  giving  an  angle  to  the  front 
faces  of  the  teeth,  the  friction  is  disengaging,  consequently  will  wear 
better.    This  escapement  is  sometimes  made  to  embrace  ten  teeth 
instead  of  eight. 


ANGULAR  GEARING.  Toothed  wheels  of  irregular  outline,  used 
in  transmitting  variable  motion,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  7- 


ANGULAR  VELOCITY.  The  angle 
through  which  an  arm  turning  on  its  axis  is 
displaced  in  a  unit  of  time.  It  is  entirely 
independent  of  the  length  of  this  arm.  The 
approximate  ratio  of  the  angular  velocites  of 


Fig.  7. 


Annealing.  22 

the  balance  with  the  cylinder  and  (pocket)  chronometer  escapements 
in  the  same  unit  of  time  (one-fifth  second  when  there  are  18,000 
vibrations  per  hour),  is  about  270°:  360°.  The  velocity,  properly  so 
called,  is  the  space  transversed  in  a  unit  of  time  by  the  point  under 
consideration  (which  in  this  case  is  taken  on  the  circumference  of  gyra- 
tion). For  a  given  angular  movement  we  obtain  the  aproximate  ratio 
of  the  velocities  by  multiplying  each  radius  by  the  number  of  vibrations 
in  a  unit  of  time. — Saunter. 

ANNEALING.  The  process  of  heating  metals  and  then  manipu- 
lating them  in  order  to  increase  their  ductility.  Gold,  silver,  copper  and 
brass  are  annealed  by  heating  them  to  redness  and  then  plunging  them 
in  water,  while  steel  is  annealed  by  heating  and  then  allowing  it  to  cool 
slowly. 

ANNULAR  GEAR.  A  gear  wheel  in  which  the  teeth  are  on  the 
inside  of  an  annulus  or  ring,  while  its  pinion  works  within  its  pitch 
circle,  turning  in  the  same  direction. 

ANODE.  The  positive  pole  of  an  electric  current,  that  pole  at 
which  the  current  enters;  opposed  to  cathode,  the  point  at  which  it 
departs. 

ARBOR.      An  axle  or  spindle  on  which  a  wheel  turns. 

ARC.    Any  given  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  or  other  curve. 

ARCOGRAPH.  An  instrument  sometimes  used  by  watchmakers 
for  drawing  a  circular  arc  without  the  use  of  a  central  point. 

ARNOLD,  JOHN.  Born  in  Cornwall,  England,  in  1744,  ^nd  died  at 
Eltham,  England,  in  1799.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  helical  form  of  balance  spring  and  a  chrono- 
meter escapement.  The  English  Government 
awarded  him  £1,320  for  the  superiority  of  his 
chronometers  in  1799,  and  his  son,  who  followed 
up  the  successes  of  his  father,  was  awarded 
£1,680  in  1805. 

ASSAY.     To  subject  an  ore,  alloy  or  metallic 

compound   to  chemical  examination  in  order  to 

determine  the  amount  of  a  particular  metal  con- 
join Arnold.  .  .      ,  •     .. 
tamed  m  it. 

AUXILIARY.     See  BalSnce. 

BALANCE.  The  wheel  in  a  watch,  clock  or  chronometer  which  is 
kept  in  vibration  by  means  of  the  escapement  and  which  regulates  the 
motion  of  the  train.    The  size  and  weight  of  a  balance  are  important 


23  Balance. 

factors  in  the  time-keeping  qualities  of  a  watch,  although  the  dimensions 
of  a  balance  are  not  criteria  of  the  time  in  which  the  balance  will  vibrate. 
The  balance  is  to  a  pocket  time-piece  what  the  pendulum  is  to  a  clock; 
although  there  are  two  essential  points  of  difference.  The  time  of  vibra- 
tion  of  a  pendulum  is  unaffected  by  its  mass,  because  every  increase  in 
that  direction  carries  with  it  a  proportional  influence  of  gravity ;  but  if 
we  add  to  the  mass  of  the  balance  we  add  nothing  to  the  strength  of 
the  hairspring,  but  add  to  its  load  and  therefore  the  vibrations  become 
slower.  Again,  a  pendulum  of  a  given  length,  as  long  as  it  is  kept  at 
the  same  distance  from  the  earth's  center,  will  vibrate  in  the  same  time 
because  the  gravity  is  always  the  same;  but  the  irregularity  in  the  force 
of  the  hairspring  produces  a  like  result  in  the  vibration  of  the  balance. 
Britten  says  there  are  three  factors  upon  which  the  time  of  the  vibration 
of  the  balance  depends: 

1.  The  weight,  or  rather  the  mass,  of  the  balance.* 

2.  The  distance  of  its  center  of  gyration  from  the  center  of  motion, 
or  to  speak  roughly,  the  diameter  of  the  balance.  From  these  two 
factors  the  moment  of  inertia  may  be  deducted. 

3.  The  strength  of  the  hair-spring,  or  more  strictly  its  power  to  resist 
change  of  form. 

Balances  are  of  two  kinds,  known  as  plain  or  uncut,  and  cut  or  com- 
pensation. The  plain  balance  is  only  used  in  this  country  on  the  very 
cheapest  variety  of  movements.  The  compensation  balance  is  used  on 
the  better  grades  of  watches.  The  plain  balance  is  usually  made  of  brass 
or  steel,  while  the  compensation  balance  is  made  of  steel  and  brass  com- 
bined. Some  English  makers  use  gold  for  plain  balances,  it  being  denser 
than  steel  and  not  liable  to  rust  or  become  magnetized.  The  process  of 
compensation  balance  making  as  carried  on  in  our  American  factories  is 
as  follows :  A  steel  disc,  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick  and  five-eighths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  first  punched  from  a  sheet  of  metal.  It  is  then 
centered  and  partially  drilled  through,  the  indentation  serving  as  a  guide 
in  the  operation  to  follow.  A  capsule  of  pure  copper  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  is  then  made,  and  in  the  center  of  this  capsule  the  steel 
disc  is  lightly  secured.  A  ring  of  brass  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness is  then  made  and  placed  between  the  copper  capsule  and  the  blank, 
and  the  whole  is  fused  together.  It  is  then  faced  upon  both  sides.  It  is 
then  placed  in  a  lathe  and  cut  away  in  the  center  until  a  ring  is  formed 
of  steel,  which  is  lined  or  framed  with  brass.  It  then  goes  into  the  press, 
where  two  crescents  are  cut  from  it,  leaving  only  the  inner  lining  of  the 
ring  and  the  cross-bar  of  steel.  The  burr  is  then  removed  and  the  bal- 
ance is  ready  to  be  drilled  and  tapped  for  the  balance  screws.  This 
method  of  making  balances  is  known  as  the  "capsule  method." 

♦The  mass  of  a  body  is  the  amount  of  matter  contained  in  that  body,  and  is  the 
same  irrespective  of  the  distance  of  the  body  from  the  center  ol  the  earth.  But  its 
weight,  which  is  mass  X  gravity,  varies  in  diflferent  latitudes. 


Balance. 


34 


The  Expansion  and  Contraction  of  Balances.  The  American 
Waltham  Watch  Company  use  a  simple  little  contrivance  shown 
at  Fig.  Q  for  indicating  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  balances. 
It  is  composed  of  a  steel  disc,  on  one  side  of  which  a  scale  is  etched 
and  opposite  the  scale  a  hole  is  drilled  and  tapped  to  receive  the 
screw  that  holds  the  balance.  One  of  the  screws  of  the  balance 
to  be  tested  is  removed  and  the  indicating  needle  is  screwed  in  its 
place.  The  steel  disc  is  held  by  means  of  a  pair  of  sliding  tongs 
over  an  alcohol  lamp,  or  can  be  heated  in  any  other  way,  and  the 
expansion  will  be  indicated  by 
the  movement  of  the  needle 
on  the  scale.  Figs.  lo,  ii  and 
12  illustrate  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  balances.  With 
an  increase  of  temperature  the 
rim  is  bent  inward,  thus  re- 
ducing the  size  of  the  balance. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that 
brass  expands  more  than  steel, 
and  in  endeavoring  to  expand 
it,  bends  the  rim  inward.  The 
action  is,  of  course,  reversed 
by  lowering  the  temperature 
below  normal.  Some  adjusters 
spin  a  balance  close  to  the 
flame  of  a  lamp  before  using,  in  order  to  subject  it  to  a  higher 
temperature  than  it  is  likely  to  meet  in  use.  The  balance  is 
then  placed    upon  a    cold    iron    plate   and    afterward    tested    for 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  10. 
Original  Position  of  Rim. 


Fig.  11. 
Under  Extreme  Cold. 


Fig.  12. 
Under  Extreme  Heat. 


poise.  The  balance  is  then  trued  if  found  necessary,  and  the 
operation  is  repeated  until  it  is  found  to  be  in  poise  after  heating. 
Sir  G.  B.  Airy,  who 'has  devoted  much  time  to  experiments  with 
the  compensation  balance,  declares  that  when  heated  the  loss  from 


25  Balance. 

the  weakening  of  the  balance  spring  is  uniformly  in  proportion 
to  the  increase  of  the  temperature.  The  compensation  balance 
does  not  meet  the  temperature  error  exactly,  for  with  a  decrease 
of  temperature  the  rims  expand  a  trifle  too  much  and  the  con- 
traction is  not  sufficient  with  the  increase  of  temperature,  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  only  possible  to  correct  an  adjustment  in  a 
watch  at  two  points.  Watches  are  usually  adjusted  at  50°  and 
85°,  unless  they  are  intended  for  shipment  to  very  hot  climates, 
when  a  higher  point  is  selected.  Marine  chronometers,  however, 
are  usually  adjusted  at  about  45°  and  90°,  but  where  intended 
for  use  on  ships  in  the  tropics,  due  allowance  is  made  and  a 
higher  degree  selected.  Of  course  the  rule  is  reversed  where 
watches  or  chronometers  are  adjusted  for  use  in  the  arctic 
regions.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  there  would  be  a  middle 
temperature  error,  with  a  steel  hairspring,  of  two  seconds  in  twenty- 
four  hours. 

In  temperatures  below  normal  the  balance  is  larger  in  diameter, 
and  the  arc  of  vibration  is  less  than  it  would  be  in  a  temperature 
above  normal  when  the  balance  is  smaller  in  diameter  and  the  arc 
large,  and  its  time  of  vibration  is  also  effected  by  the  hairspring  so 
that  it  is  not  possible  to  predict  with  certainty  the  amount  of  middle 
temperature  error.  Watches  are  sometimes  purposely  left  fast  in 
the  short  arcs  in  order  to  lessen  the  middle  temperature  error  and 
thereby  take  advantage  of  the  above  circumstances.  Numerous 
forms  of  compensation  balances  and  auxiliaries  have  been  devised 
in  order  to  try  and  counteract  for  the  middle  temperature  error. 
Most  of  them,  however,  are  utterly  valueless.  For  a  fuller  descrip- 
tion see  Compensation  Balance. 

Sizes  and  Weights  of  Balances.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  bal- 
ance are  two  very  important  elements  in  the  timing  of  a  watch  and 
especially  in  adjusting  to  positions.  The  rules  governing  the  sizes  and 
weights  of  balances,  says  Mr.  Chas.  Reiss,  are  of  a  complex  nature,  and 
though  positive,  are  difficult  of  application  on  account  of  the  impracti- 
cability of  determining  the  value  of  the  elements  on  which  we  have  to 
base  our  calculations.  These  elements  are  the  main-spring  or  motive 
power, the  hairspring  representing  the  force  of  gravity  on  the  pendu- 
lum, momentum  and  friction.  The  relation  of  the  motive  power,  or  the 
mainspring,  to  the  subject  under  discussion  lies  first  in  the  necessary 
proportion  between  it  and  the  amount  of  tension  of  the  spring  to  be  over- 
come, according  to  extent  and  number  of  vibrations  aimed  at;  and,  sec- 
ond, to  that  of  friction  affecting  motion  of  the  balance  and  incidental  to 
it.  In  an  18,000  train  the  main-spring  has  to  overcome  resistance  of  the 
hairspring  for  432,000  vibrations  daily.  The  hairspring,  having  its  force 
established  by  the  relative  force  of  the  motive  power,  circumscribes  the 


Balance.  20 

proportions  of  the  mass  called  balance  and  is  a  co-agent  for  overcoming 
friction. 

Momentum  overcomes  some  of  tlie  elastic  force  of  .the  spring  and 
friction.  It  is  the  force  of  a  body  in  motion  and  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  body  multiplied  by  its  velocity.  Velocity  in  a  balance  is  repre- 
sented by  its  circumference,  a.  given  point  \n  which  travels  a.  given  disiance 
in  a  given  time.  Weight  is  that  contained  in  its  rim.  A  balance  is  said 
to  have  more  or  less  momentum,  in  proportion  as  it  retains  force  im- 
parted to  it  by  impulsion.  If  a  watch  has  a  balance  with  which  it  has 
been  brought  to  time,  and  this  is  changed  to  one-half  the  size,  it  requires 
to  be  four  times  as  heavy,  because  its  weight  is  then  only  half  the  dis- 
tance from  the  center,  and  any  given  point  in  its  circumference  has  only 
half  the  distance  to  travel.  On  the  other  hand,  a  balance  twice  the  size, 
would  have  one-fourth  the  weight.  In  the  first  case  the  balance  would 
have  twice  as  much  momentum  as  the  original  one,  because  if  we  multi- 
ply the  weight  by  the  velocity  we  have  a  product  twice  as  great.  In  the 
latter  case  a  like  operation  would  give  a  product  half  as  great  as  in  the 
original  balance. 

It  follows  that  the  smaller  and  heavier  a  balance  the  more  momentum, 
and,  vice  versa,  the  less  momentum  it  has,  always  on  condition  that  the 
hairspring  controls  both  equally.  Friction,  affecting  the  vibration  of 
the  balance,  is  that  of  the  pivots  on  which  it  moves  and  that  of  the  escape, 
ment.  It  is  in  proportion  to  the  force  with  which  two  surfaces  are 
pressed  together  and  their  area.  In  a  balance,  weight  is  sj'nonymous 
with  pressure.  Area  is  represented  by  the  size  of  its  pivots  and  the 
thickness  of  the  pivot  holes.  The  first,  pivot  friction,  is  continuous  and 
incidental  and  is  overcome  by  combined  forces,  the  motive  power,  the 
elasticity  of  the  hair-spring,  and  the  momentum  of  the  balance.  The 
latter,  or  escapement  friction,  is  intermitting  and  is  overcome  by  con- 
tending forces,  the  hair-spring  and  the  momentum  of  the  balance  on  one 
side  and  the  motive  power  on  the  other. 

Having  in  our  power,  as  shown  above,  to  obtain  the  desired  momen- 
tum of  the  balance  by  differing  relative  pressure  and  diameter,  we  can 
regulate  pivot  friction  within  certain  limits  and  distribute  the  labor  of 
overcoming  it,  among  the  co-operative  forces,  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
proportions  of  such  distributions  shall  not  be  disturbed  during  their 
(forces)  increase  or  decrease.  Incidental  pivot  friction  is  that  caused  by 
the  unlocking  on  the  impulse.  The  first  causes  retardation,  the  latter 
acceleration  in  the  motion  of  the  balance,  regardless  of  isochronism.  It 
is  easy  to  comprehend  that  a  heavy  balance  would,  by  its  greater  mo- 
mentum, unlock  the  escapement  with  less  retardation  than  a  light  one; 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  acceleration  by  the  impulse  would  be  less 
also;  and  with  a  varying  motive  power  a  disturbing  element  would  be 
introduced  by  a  change  in  the  relative  proportions  of  these  forces,  the 
momentum  of  the  balance  decreasing  or  increasing  faster  than  the  motive 


27  Balance. 

power,  constituting  as  it  does  relatively  a  more  variable  force.  In  argu- 
ment the  reverse  of  this  might  be  advanced  in  regard  to  a  balance  which 
is  too  light.  Without,  however,  entering  further  into  the  subject  it  is 
plain  how  the  rate  of  a  watch  under  such  conditions  might  be  affected 
after  being  apparently  adjusted  in  stationary  positions,  by  being  used  on 
a  locomotive  or  under  conditions  where  external  disturbances  should 
lessen  the  extent  of  vibration,  and  making  the  contact  between  the  bal- 
ance and  the  escapement  of  less  duration. 

The  almost  universal  abandonment  of  watches  with  uniform  motive 
power  and  the  introduction  of  stem-winders  with  going  barrels,  invest 
the  subject  with  special  interest;  and,  as  stated  in  the  beginning,  applying 
rules  for  defining  these  desirable  proportions  being  impracticable,  the 
only  solution  of  the  problem  which  remains  to  us  is  the  study,  by  obser- 
vation of  certain  symptoms  which  do  exist,  to  determine  that  which  by 
other  means  cannot  be  done.  During  the  progress  of  horology,  sim- 
ilar difficulties  had  to  be  met  in  every  kind  of  watch  which  happened  to 
be  in  use.  The  old  Verge  watch  had  its  balance  proportioned  thus :  that 
it  could  lie  inside  in  the  main-spring  barrel,  and  the  watch,  when  set 
going  without  a  balance  spring,  would  indicate,  by  the  hand  on  the  dial, 
a  progress  of  twenty-seven  and  one-half  minutes  during  one  hour  run- 
ning.  It  was  said  that  under  these  circumstances  it  would  be  least 
affected  by  inequalities  of  the  motive  power,  and  the  verge  would  not  be 
cut  by  the  escape  wheel.  The  balance  in  the  Cylinder  watch  was  to  be 
sized  according  to  the  proportion  of  the  train,  each  successive  wheel  to  be 
one-half  smaller  than  the  preceding  one,  and  the  balance  to  be  twice  the 
size  of  the  escape  wheel,  the  weight  to  be  determined  by  the  equal  run- 
ning of  the  watch  during  all  the  changes  of  an  unequal  motive  power. 
The  cutting  of  the  steel  pallets  in  Duplex  watches  or  chronometers  is 
caused  rnore  by  too  heavy  balances  than  by  any  other  defect  in  their 
parts.  It  might  be  well  to  note  the  following  which  is  very  important 
and  too  often  neglected.  That  is  the  arrangement  of  the  mainspring 
in  the  barrel  so  as  to  avoid  coil  friction  The  smallest  advantage  of  the 
old  Fusee  watch  was  not  the  facility  ot  obtainmg  five  turns  of  the  fusee 
to  three  or  three  and  one-half  of  the  mainspring,  but  being  enabled 
thereby  to  arrange  the  latter  around  a  small  arbor  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  coils  never  touched,  insuring  a  smooth  motive  power  and 
lessening  the  chances  of  breakage  beyond  estimation. 

Poising  the  Balance.  In  merely  poising  a  balance  for  a  cheap 
movement  there  is  no  great  difficulty,  that  is,  putting  it  in  equipoise 
sufficient  for  the  reasonably  good  performance  of  the  movement ;  but  to 
well  and  thoroughly  poise  for  a  high  grade  of  movement  embraces 
means  and  methods  not  necessary  in  the  first  mentioned.  In  a  cheap 
balance  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  is  not  expected,  and  so  the  manipula- 
tions are,  in  the  poising,  simple,  provided  all  the  parts  are   in  condition 


Balance. 


28 


Fig.  19. 


to  admit  of  poising.  The  following  will  be  about  all  the  conditions  and 
means  used  generally :  In  the  outset  the  balance  should  be  in  poise 
without  its  staff,  and  this  is  approximated  before  the  staff  is  in  by  putting 
into  the  staff  socket  in  the  arm  a  piece  of  true  wire,  sufficiently  tight  to 
allow  of  the  balance  being  held  onto  it  with  friction,  so  that  the  balance 
can  be  trued  in  the  flat  by  the  fingers  or  with  tweezers  and  remain  while 
poising  on  the  parallel  bars. 

Fig.  13  illustrates  a  form  of  tweezers  made  especially  for  balance 
truing.  To  here  explain  the  parallel  bars  and  give  a  few  points  regard- 
ing the  essential  features  will  be  well,  and   help  to  make  clear  some 

points  that 
follow  in  the 
poising  instruc- 
tions. The  par- 
allel bars  for 
the  use  of 
watch  repairers 
with  the  fol- 
lowing features,  will  be  suited  to  all  the  cases  met 
with:  The  two  bars,  if  made  of  steel,  for  instance, 
must  have  only  the  top  edges  on  which  the  pivots 
rest  made  of  this  metal,  and  the  less  the  better.  The 
top  edge  should  not  be  over  y J,,  of  an  inch  thick  and 
the  bar  ^  or  i  inch  long.  The  bars  must  have  the 
guides  that  carry  them  move  them  open  or  shut  for 
different  lengths  of  staffs,  and  keep  the  bars  parallel 
during  the  movements.  The  bars,  after  they  are  in 
their  places  and  securely  fastened  to  the  stand 
carrying  them,  must  be  ground  true,  straight  and 
parallel,  on  a  flat  piece  of  glass  (plate  glass  is  the  best),  charged 
with  emery  of  about  140,  with  oil  sufl[iclent  to  make  a  paste.  The 
glass  can  be  held  and  used  as  a  file  or  the  bars  can  be  held  down 
on  the  glass  and  moved  about  with  a  circular  stroke,  but  if  the 
stand  is  large  and  heavy  this  operation  will  not  be  readily  performed 
with  good  results.  The  main  reason  for  using  the  glass  referred  to,  is 
that  it  is  a  ready  way  of  getting  a  grinding  bed  comparatively  true  with- 
out labor  or  preparation.  A  flat  metal  surface,  marble  or  stoneware, 
would  answer  well,  but  would  not  be  so  readily  had.  After  the  emery 
has  ground  the  surface  true,  clean  oflfall  the  emery  and  use  fine  oil  stone 
powder  or  pumice  stone;  clean,  and  follow  the  pumice  stone  with  any 
polishing  powder,  or  follow  the  pumice  stone  with  a  large  and  true  bur- 
nishing file,  keeping  the  surface  wet  slightly.  In  making  the  parallel 
edges,  the  object  is  to  give  them  a  perfectly  straight  surface  on  the  edge 
and  highly  polished.  These  parallels  are  probably  best  made  of  bell 
metal,  as  there  is  then  no  danger  of  their  being  affected  or  accumulating 


29  Balance. 

magnetism.  In  the  construction  of  a  poising  tool,  to  avoid  the  use  of 
iron  or  steel  in  its  make-up,  will  be  found  the  most  satisfactory',  as  then 
magnetism  will  not  be  a  disturbing  element  that  it  might  otherwise  be. 
The  whole  tool  should  be  heavy  and  low  and  stand  on  the  bench  firmly, 
and,  if  a  fine  one,  have  two  level  vials  set  in  its  base  to  level  up  the  par- 
allels with,  before  using.  With  a  level  bench  and  a  tool  made  so  that  the 
feet  are  parallel  to  the  top  edge  of  the  parallels,  there  vi'ill  be  little 
trouble  in  the  balance  rolling  by  gravity  while  poising.  There  are  a 
great  variety  of  poising  tools,  and  any  that  have  the  parallel  bars  true 
and  straight  and  parallel  to  one  another,  readily  adjusted  for  distance, 
and  have  a  firm  and  heavy  stand,  will  be  easily  and  satisfactorily  han- 
dled. 

Holes  for  the  staff  pivots  are  not  good  for  poising,  although  jeweled, 
as  the  pivots  must  turn  in  them  with  a  slipping  action,  whereas  they  roll 
without  slip  or  friction  on  the  parallels.  The  extreme  top  edge  of  the 
parallels,  if  of  hard  substance,  can  be  made  as  thin  as  the  gj^  of  an  inch 
and  be  all  the  better,  as  will  be  explained.  The  plain,  straight  portion  of 
a  conical  pivot  of  a  fine  staff  is  frequently  not  over  the  j  J^  of  an  inch 
long,  and  this  is  the  part  of  the  pivot  that  is  to  be  exactly  concentric 
•with  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  balance 
after  poising  is  accomplished  and  is  that 
part  of  the  pivot  that  rests  on  the  ^'ewel. 
Now,  from  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
thickness  of  the  parallels  can  not  be  great, 
not  over  the  ^Jg  of  an  inch,  as  the  conical 
part    of   the    pivot   must   not   touch    the  '^' 

parallel,  and  the  end  of  the  pivot  should  be  outside  of  the  parallel.  Fig. 
14  will  show  the  situation  and  give  the  best  idea.  After  the  balance  has 
been  trued  on  the  wire,  then  test  on  the  straight  edge,  and  if  the  balance 
rolls  freely  and  gravitates,  then  lighten  it  on  the  down  or  heavy  side. 
Or  in  the  event  that  the  balance  is  rather  light  it  may  be  advisable  to 
weight  it  on  the  top  or  light  side. 

It  will  take  a  little  practice  to  poise  in  this  first  operation,  and  there 
are  several  points  to  look  at.  First,  if  the  balance  is  a  heavy  one, 
then  in  poising  take  away  weight;  second,  if  a  plain  (not  comp.), 
remove  little  bits  from  the  under  side  of  the  rim  with  a  graver  or 
drill;  if  very  light,  add  weight  by  drilling  in  the  rim  and  driving 
in  several  pins  and  then  filing  away  till  poised.  The  pins  must 
be  put  into  the  rim  at  such  points  as  are  indicated  by  the  circumstances. 
Soft  solder,  if  used  on  the  under  side  of  a  plain  balance,  is  very  easily 
handled,  but  the  risk  from  the  soldering  fluid  is  great  and  requires  great 
care  in  cleaning,  but  when  all  is  well  done,  it  serves  a  good  purpose.  As 
the  wire  on  which  the  balance  is  hung  is  large  in  diameter,  the  poising 
will  not  be  very  delicate,  but  can  be  made  good  enough  for  the  end 
served.     In  poising  a  compensating  balance,  the  balance  must  be  hung 


Balance.  30 

on  a  wire  with  each  end  pointed,  turned  to  points,  so  that  the  wire  can 
be  held  in  the  calipers  and  the  balance  made  true  in  the  round.*  Set 
the  gauge  of  the  calipers  so  that  the  rim  at  the  end  of  one  arm  shall 
exactly  coincide  with  it,  and  then  turn  the  balance  slowly  under  the 
gauge  and  see  if  the  rim  turns  truly  under  it.  If  not  true,  bend  in  or 
out  with  the  fingers  and  try  by  gauge  till  the  balance  will  turn  true  in 
the  round,  then  put  onto  the  parallels  and  poise  as  in  case  of  the  plain 
balance,  but  alter  the  weight  with  the  screws.  The  screws  that  are  at 
the  bottom  can  be  put  into  a  split  chuck  and  a  little  turned  away  from 
the  under  side  of  the  head,  or  a  washerf  can  be  put  under  the  head  of 
the  top  screw,  and  this  method  pursued  till  a  reasonably  fine  poising  is 
obtained.  In  these  operations  all  the  points  relating  should  be  well  con- 
sidered, and  not  make  moves  without  method  and  good  reasons.  Care 
is  required  all  through  poising  in  all  its  branches. 

These  washers  are  very  convenient  to  use  in  cases  where  a  balance 
requires  a  little  more  weight,  and  where  it  is  not  advisable  to  change  the 
hairspring  or  regulator  when  regulating  to  time,  and  in  such  cases  must 
be  put  under  the  heads  of  the  screws  at  the  ends  of  the  arms.  All  things 
being  equal,  in  poising  a  weighted  balance,  it  is  better  to  add  a  little 
weight  than  to  take  away  any,  by  turning  the  heads  of  screws  as  de- 
scribed, and  then  the  balance  is  not  in  any  way  injured,  and  if  it  was  all 
correct  when  found,  although  indications  led  to  other  conclusions,  by 
removing  a  washer  or  two  the  balance  would  be  left  as  originally,  and 
much  trouble  saved  in  trying  to  remedy  a  mistake.  Never  make  any 
changes  in  a  fine  compensated  balance,  as,  in  all  probability,  it  was  correct 
when  made  and  some  injudicious  handling  is  to  blame  for  any  defect. 
After  a  balance  has  been  trued  in  the  calipers  as  described,  so  that  the 
rim  is  truly  concentric  with  the  hole  in  the  arm,  it  should,  if  it  has  not 
been  injured,  be  virtually  in  poise,  but  if  it  is  not,  add  washers  to  the 
screws  on  the  light  side,  and  by  them  try  to  poise  it  rather  than  by 
lessening  the  weight.  Many  times,  taking  a  screw  from  the  heavy  side 
and  putting  it  in  place  of  one  on  the  light,  and  the  light  in  place  of  the 
heavy,  will  tend  to  an  equilibrium,  and  so  far  as  it  does,  is  so  much  gain 
In  removing  the  screws  in  a  compensating  balance,  care  must  be  used 
when  they  are  replaced,  to  see  that  they  are  left  just  tight  enough  to  stay 
in  place,  and  at  the  same  time  not  bind  the  head  hard  down  on  the  rim. 
Screws  badly  handled  in  this  respect  may  derange  the  compensation,  also 
the  poising.  All  the  screws  of  a  balance,  except  those  at  the  ends  of  the 
arms,  and  occasionally  a  pair  of  the  quarters,  should  be  down,  heads  close 
to  the  rim.  The  others  can  be  turned  in  and  out  at  pleasure  to 
poise,  or  for  timing,  as  required.  With  a  balance  with  a  screw  at  each 
end  of  the  arm,  it  is  best  not  to  move  them  in  or  out  in  poising,  but  pro- 
ceed as  described  and  leave  these  screws  to  be  moved  in  timing  afterward, 

♦See  Gauges, 

fSee  Balante  Screw  Washers. 


3t  Balance. 

if  required,  as  it  helps  to  make  that  operation  easy.  When  a  balance 
has  four  screws  they  may  be  moved  to  do  all  the  poising  and  afterward 
any  pair  opposite,  or  the  whole,  may  be  moved  in  timing  and  not  disturb 
the  poising.  A  compensating  balance  with  four  screws  as  described  is 
much  the  easiest  balance  to  handle,  for  by  these  screws  the  finer  adjust- 
ments in  poising  and  timing  can  be  easily  performed  with  greater  cer- 
tainty than  by  the  old  methods  as  described. 

The  balance  staff  is  a  very  important  element  in  poising  and  its  pivots 
should  be  perfect,  that  is,  perfect  cylinders,  and  all  that  part  that  touches 
the  hole  jewel  should  be  of  equal  diameter.  By  referring  to  cut  of  staff, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  end  after  leaving  the  cone  is  straight,  of  equal  dia- 
meter throughout  its  whole  length,  and  this  is  the  shape  of  all  staff  pivots 
at  that  point  riding  in  the  jewel  holes,  no  matter  what  curve  or  shape  jnay 
be  given  to  the  balance  of  the  pivot.  When  there  is  a  different  diameter 
in  the  top  and  bottom  pivots  they  are  each  true  cylinders  and  their  cylin- 
drical diameters  are  parallel  to  each  other  and  to  the  axis  of  the  staff. 
When  pivots  are  bent,  or  out  of  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  staff,  they  are 
then  not  in  condition  to  make  poising  possible,  as  a  bent  pivot  will  make 
a  balance  gravitate  and  act  as  though  out  of  poise  in  itself,  and  with  a 
bent  pivot,  poising  can  only  be  approximately  attained.  Perfectly  cylin- 
drical and  parallel  pivots  to  a  staff  are,  in  poising,  a  very  essential 
feature,  and  without  which  poising  cannot  be  attained. 

When  a  balance  has  been  poised  as  indicated  and  a  staff  made  and  fit- 
ted with  perfectly  cylindrical  and  parallel  pivots,  proceed  as  follows,  and 
there  will  be  little  to  do  to  complete  the  operation:  First  put  the  balance 
on  the  staff  with  a  hollow  punch  and  only  press  it  on  sufficiently  to  hold 
for  preliminary  tests;  then  place  on  the  parallels  of  the  poiser  and  exam- 
ine ;  should  the  balance  appear  in  poise,  it  must  not  be  taken  for  granted 
that  it  is  so,  but  try  a  very  slight  jar  given  the  poising  tool,  like  rubbing 
over  the  frame  an  old  file,  which  will  impart  to  it  a  very  slight  vibra- 
tion, and  if  the  balance  is  actually  out,  it  will  roll  and  then  remain  with 
the  heavy  side  down.  If  ajar,  such  as  a  series  if  taps  with  a  hammer,  be 
given,  the  balance  will  rotate  and  stop  for  an  instant  and  then  rotate 
again,  and  finally  jar  off  the  bars  and  the  operation  will  not  prove  any- 
thing. The  jar  is  such  that  the  balance  raises  up  bodily,  when  made 
with  a  file,  and  then  falls  down  exactly  on  the  same  place  on  the  paral- 
lels, rather  the  pivots  come  to  rest  always  at  the  same  point;  and  it  will 
be  seen  by  this  means  that  if  any  point  of  the  rim  is  in  reality  heavier 
from  gravity,  that  it  will  by  the  momentum  imparted,  fall,  overcoming 
the  pivot  friction,  and  finally  seek  a  point  in  a  direct  line  under  the  st::ff. 

Repeated  movements  of  a  balance  while  on  the  parallels  are^necessary, 
together  with  great  cleanliness  of  pivots  and  parallels,  to  thoroughly 
ascertain  the  true  poised  condition  of  the  balance.  When  it  is  ascertained 
that  a  balance  is  out  of  poise  or  has  a  heavy  side,  punch  out  the  staff 
and  put  the  balance  again  on  it  only  turned  just  one-half  way  around, 


Balance.  S3 

and  repeat  as  above.  In  this  way  a  staff  can  be  put  into  a  balance  to  the 
best  advantage  and  such  little  items  all  tend  to  save  time  and  make  easy 
the  whole  handling.  When  the  best  position  is  found  for  the  staff,  stake 
it,  and  true  in  the  flat,  and  test  again  on  the  bars,  and  if  necessary  make 
further  changes  as  above  to  affect  a  poise.  When  i  balance  is  in  poise 
and  a  staff  perfectly  true  as  has  been  described,  and  well  staked  on,  it 
will  in  the  most  cases  be  found  poised  and  nothing  further  to  do.  After 
putting  on  the  roller  it  is  advisable  to  test  again  for  position,  but  it  is 
generally  unnecessary,  as  this  will  not  disturb  the  poising  only  in  excep- 
tional cases.  By  staking  on  the  roller  too  tight  the  staff  may  be  bent 
and  may  destroy  the  poise. 

Care  is  necessary  in  handling  a  balance  for  any  purpose,  not  to  bend 
the  rim,  soil  or  corrode  the  metal  and  finish,  and  in  making  slight  altera- 
tions in  the  curve  of  the  rim,  not  to  bend  it  at  the  holes  and  so  destroy 
its  true  circle  and  injure  the  strength  of  the  metal  and  change  its  adjust- 
ment. 

Any  one,  after  poising  a  balance  and  testing  the  movement  carefully 
indifferent  positions,  will  in  many  cases  be  aware  of  quite  a  change  of 
rate  in  the  changes  of  position,  and  this,  at  the  first  thought,  would  seem 
to  rather  reflect  on  the  accuracy  of  the  poising;  but  it  will  be  found  to 
occur  at  times  with  the  most  carefully  poised  balance,  and  that  the  oper- 
ation  of  poising  by  the  parallels  does  not  comprehend  the  whole,  nor  the 
very  nicer  requirements.  In  any  case  the  most  careful  mechanical  pois- 
ing must  be  attended  to  first,  before  any  operations  of  a  more  delicate 
nature  are  attempted.  In  short,  the  parallels  are  to  be  used  in  the  most 
delicate  methods,  but  precede  the  others.  When  a  movement  is  placed 
in  its  case  and  hung  up,  after  poising  on  the  parallels,  its  rate  should  be 
carefully  noted  for  a  given  time,  then  it  should  be  just  reversed  and  set 
up  with  the  pendent  down,  when  it  will  be  found,  as  a  rule,  that  after  a 
trial  of  same  duration  as  the  first,  that  the  rate  will  not  be  the  same. 
Now,  when  this  occurs  in  a  fine  movement,  it  will  be  advisable  to  inves- 
tigate all  the  parts  which  in  any  way  relate  to  this  action.  Both  hole 
jewels  must  be  examined,  for  finish,  thickness  and  truth  of  the  bore;  the 
roller  jewel  and  the  lever-fork  examined;  guard  pin  and  its  action  with 
the  table;  the  hairspring  and  all  its  relations  and  connections;  the  bal- 
ance must  be  removed  and  then  the  lever,  and  the  lever  placed  on  the 
parallels  by  its  staff  pivots,  as  in  the  balance,  and  tested  for  poising.  The 
lever  should,  when  placed  on  the  parallels,  lay  horizontal,  like  the  beam 
of  pan  scales,  and  not  swing  or  hang  either  end  down;  the  weight  should 
be  removed  from  the  heavy  end,  in  such  an  event,  until  the  lever  will  lie 
as  indicated.*  Levers  can  be,  and  are  made,  that  will  stand  in  any  position, 
like  a  poised  balance,  but  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  diflncult  to  poise  a  lever 
for  any  position  other  than  horizontal.  Next,  the  escape  wheel  must  be 
poised  so  that  it  will  perform  as  a  poised  balance,  when  on  the  parallels; 
lever  and  escape  jewels  examined,  as  In  those  of  the  balance  staff. 


33  Balance. 

After  all  has  been  so  far  attended  to,  and  the  parts  in  place  again,  the 
balance  must  stand,  when  the  mainspring  is  entirely  run  down,  with  its 
arms  either  perpendicular  or  horizontal ;  with  a  movement,  whose  bal- 
ance is  near  the  center,  the  arms  can  stand  pointing  to  6  and  12,  or  3 
and  9,  as  the  most  convenient.  In  requiring  balance  arms  to  stand  in 
some  fixed  relation  to  prominent  points  of  the  movement,  the  manipula- 
tions are  greatly  facilitated,  though  any  position  the  arms  may  chance 
to  have  will  not  interfere  with  the  result,  but  a  more  expert  hand  will 
be  required  to  get  along  with  ease  and  certainty. 

When  all  the  foregoing  operations  are  attended  to,  hang  up  the  watch 
and  take  its  rate  for  12  hours,  with  main  spring  fully  wound  up;  then 
reverse  its  position,  with  main  spring  wound  up,  and  test  for  another  12 
hours.  On  examination,  if  there  should  be  any  considerable  variation  in 
the  rates  in  the  two  positions,  say  10  to  15  seconds,  then  proceed  by 
changing  the  screws  as  follows :  in  a  case  where  the  watch  loses  when 
hanging,  it  indicates  that  a  screw  of  the  balance  nearest  to  12  or  6,  when 
the  movement  is  entirely  run  down,  must  be  moved  a  very  little  in  or 
out.  In  this  case,  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  the  balance  is  too  heavy  on 
the  side  nearest  6 — that  this  side  gravitates,  and,  to  an  extent,  acts  like 
a  pendulum.  Assuming  this  to  be  the  case,  turn  the  lower  screw  in  and 
the  upper  one  out,  where  there  are  four  timing  screws,  and,  where  not, 
washers  may  be  added  to  the  top  screws,  and  the  two  trials  repeated. 
After  trial,  if  the  result  is  improved,  then  the  lower  screw  may  be  made 
a  little  lighter,  but  not  at  the  first  trial.  In  the  first  trials  the  balance 
should  not  be  altered  in  weight,  as  indications  in  these  manipulations  are 
changed  or  modified  by  conditions  not  yet  mentioned. 

We  will  assume  that  the  balance  has  four  screws,  and  when  one  is 
turned  in  and  the  other  out,  as  indicated,  and  the  end  attained,  then  the 
watch  is  to  be  placed  with  the  3  or  9  up,  and  two  trials  made,  as  in  the 
first,  and  the  same  method  used,  if  indications  are  similar. 

When  the  handling  of  the  balance  has  been  correctly  done,  the  poising 
will  be  found  to  equalize  the  rates  of  the  different  positions,  and  the  total 
performance  improved.  There  are,  of  course,  many  chances  for  mis- 
takes, but,  with  caution,  they  will  do  no  harm,  for  if  the  balance  is  not 
changed  other  than  a  change  in  distribution  of  its  weights,  the  act  of 
restoring  will  be  merely  setting  all  the  screws  back  to  the  position  they 
were  when  poised  by  the  parallels,  and  then  proceed  again  on  a  new 
method,  reversing  the  first;  and  then  gradually  it  will  be  made  clear 
to  the  most  inexperienced,  remembering  that  what  held  good  in 
one  case  may  not  in  another;  and  that  various  cases  are  only  com- 
passed by  trial;  and  that  the  indications  in  the  one  may  be  just  reversed 
in  the  other. 

Instead  of  changing  the  lower  screw  as  previously  suggested,  another 
trial  may  be  made  with  12  down,  and  the  rate  taken  for  the  same  period 
as  for  6  down,  and  the  two  compared.    Now  if  the  watch  maintains  its 


Balance.  34 

former  record  it  is  pretty  good  evidence  that  the  two  rates  will  be  its 
rates  for  these  two  positions,  and  then  the  alterations  may  be  made. 
Now,  while  hanging  in  this  case  the  watch  lost,  6  down,  and  relatively 
gained  with  12  up,  and  a  very  natural  conclusion  would  be,  if  losing 
with  6  down,  that  the  lower  side  of  the  balance  would  be  the  heaviest. 
Such  is  not  the  case,  but  the  indications  are  that  the  upper  side  is  the 
heaviest,  and  that  the  screw  there  should  be  turned  in,  and  that  the  lower 
one  may  or  may  not  be  changed.  Change  the  top  screw  first,  in  this 
case,  and  then  make  another  trial  and  compare  with  the  first.  In  all 
average  cases,  after  changing  the  screw,  the  two  rates  should  be  found  to 
be  closer  than  in  the  first  trial,  and  this  will  give  a  pretty  good  index  of 
how  to  proceed.  The  philosophy  of  the  action  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  action  of  the  musical  measuring  instrument  used  to  beat  music 
measures,  called  a  metronome.  It  has  a  short  pendulum  with  the  rod 
prolonged  above  the  shaft  that  it  swings  on,  and  on  the  upper  end  of  this 
rod  is  a  small  weight  that  slides  up  and  down  and  so  regulates  the  beats. 
The  position  of  this  weight,  being  above  the  center  of  motion,  has  a  very 
great  control  of  the  vibrations  and  controls  them  for  a  wide  range.  For 
instance,  the  whole  pendulum  of  one  of  these  instruments  is  not  over  2 
or  2}4  inches  long,  but  with  the  little  counter  weight  it  can  be  made  to 
beat  seconds  and  slower  measures,  which  could  not  be  accomplished 
with  anything  short  of  a  39  inch  pendulum  and  over.  Then  move  the 
screw  as  already  indicated,  keeping  in  mind  the  compared  pendulum 
action  and  its  philosophy. 

Gravitating  on  the  principle  of  the  simple  pendulum  is  not  the  whole 
problem  in  moving  the  screws  of  the  balance,  but  they  embrace  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  instrument  described,  and  this  must  be  kept  In  mind  in 
the  handling.  In  experiments  it  will  be  found  that  a  screw  moved  at 
at  the  top  of  a  balance,  will  make  twice  as  much  changing  in  the  rate  as 
the  same  movement  of  a  screw  at  the  bottom.  Hang  up  a  watch  and 
turn  out  the  lower  screw  one-half  a  turn,  and  the  rate  will  be,  for 
instance,  ten  seconds  slow  in  six  hours.  Now  put  up  just  reversed,  and 
for  the  next  six  hours  the  watch  will  be  found  twenty  seconds  slow  or 
more.  Now,  if  we  proceed  in  this  case  on  the  simple  pendulum  philos- 
ophy, we  should  make  a  mistake  in  moving  the  screws. 

In  practice  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  only  tests  for  3  and  9,  assuming 
we  have  an  open  face  watch.  First  regulate  on  full  spring  for  6  or  eight 
hours  hanging,  and  when  well  regulated  place  the  watch  3  up  and  then  9 
for  the  same  period  on  full  spring,  and  if  any  material  change  in  rate  is 
found  in  the  two  last,  then  move  the  screw  as  already  indicated,  keeping 
in  mind  the  compound  action  and  its  philosophy. 

The  handling  of  the  screws  in  poising  on  the  parallels  and  in  the  run- 
ning watch  are  for  some  indications  just  reversed,  and  this  is  due  to  the 
action  of  lever  and  hairspring  on  the  balance,  with  gravity  in  one  case 
and  to  gravity  alone  in  the  other.     In  experimenting  with  the  running 


35  Balance  Arc. 

watch  always  wind  fully  up  for  each  trial,  and  periods  of  six  to  eight 
hours  will  be  found  the  most  convenient.  The  upper  coils  of  a  main- 
spring are  much  the  most  equal  in  power,  and  consequently  give  best 
results;  tliat  is,  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  turns  of  a  spring  are  much 
nearer  each  other  in  strength  tlian  are  tlie  second,  third  and  fourth.  If  a 
balance  is  perfectly  poised  meclianically,  and  the  whole  train  in  perfect 
mechanical  poise  and  condition,  then  the  running  watch  should  not  give 
any  very  considerable  difference  in  rate  in  four  positions,  but  as  this  is 
not  the  case  generallj-  there  will  be  a  change  of  rate  in  the  positions  and 
the  balance  can  be  then  manipulated  to  correct  the  error,  although  it  in 
itself  may  not  be  at  fault.  The  reason  for  not  testing  a  watch  for  the 
whole  range  of  four  positions,  is  that  in  the  pocket,  a  watch  is  not  sup- 
posed to  get  into  a  position  with  the  stem  down,  three  and  nine  are  apt 
to  be  up  and  down,  and  so  with  twelve  are  the  three  positions  used.  The 
isochronal  condition  of  the  hairspring  is  apt  to  make  trouble  in  these 
experiments,  and  this  is  another  reason  for  using  full  spring  invariably. 
The  extent  of  motion  of  the  balance  is  another  element  in  the  mat- 
ter, and  any  movement  when  in  perfect  poise  for  a  balance  motion  of  ^ 
of  a  revolution,  each  side  of  the  center  or  dead  point  (i|^  revolution) 
would  not  be  found  in  as  accurate  poise  for  ^  of  a  revolution.  A  bal- 
ance making  one  and  a  half  revolutions,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  self-cor- 
recting, as  will  be  seen,  and  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  other  movement, 
for  if  any  point  of  the  rim  is  out  of  poise  then  the  fault  is  brought  just 
opposite  in  each  excursion,  and  so  does  not  relatively  gravitate.  Owing 
to  the  fusee,  an  English  lever  with  a  balance  making  one  and  one-half 
revolutions,  is  the  highest  form  of  movement  for  accurate  adjustments 
of  any  kind  and  so  is  the  easiest  to  realize  perfect  poising.  The  Ameri- 
can watch  is  so  uniformly  well  and  evenly  made  by  machinery  that 
poising  is  in  it  quite  easy,  and  much  more  so  than  in  foreign  makes.  A 
Waltham  movement  that  I  tested,  just  as  it  left  the  factory,  only  changed 
its  rate  about  three  seconds  for  the  four  positions.  This  could  not  be 
realized  in  any  medium  grade  of  foreign  watch,  and  I  presume  this  is  not 
a  single  case,  but  probably  rather  a  type.  The  American  movement  is 
made  mechanically  so  near  perfection  that  the  watchmaker  will  find 
poising  a  balance  comparatively  easy,  and  that  what  he  finds  to  hold  good 
in  one  case  will  be  pretty  sure  in  another,  due  to  this  mechanical  perfec- 
tion.   J.  L.  F. 

BALANCE  ARC.  That  part  of  the  vibration  of  a  balance  in 
which  it  is  connected  with  the  train,  used  only  in  reference  to  detached 
escapements. 

BALANCE  BRIDGE  OR  COCK.  The  standard  that  holds  the 
top  pivot  of  the  balance  in  an  upright  position.  In  some  of  the  old  En- 
glish and  French  full  plate  watches  the  balance  cock  was  spread  out  to 


Balance  Protector.  36 

cover  the  entire  balance,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  and  was  sometimes  artis- 
tically wrought  and  set  with  precious  stones. 

BALANCE  PROTECTOR.  No  matter  how  careful  a  person  may 
be,  accidents  will  happen,  and  the  least  accident  to  a  compensation  bal- 
ance gives  the  workman  considerable  trouble.  The  Arrick  patent  bal- 
ance  protector,  Fig.  16,  is  intended  for  guarding  balances  from  contact 


Fig.  15.  Fig.  16. 

with  turning  tools,  polishers  and  the  hand  rest,  while  work  is  being  done 
upon  the  pivots.  The  staff  is  passed  through  the  hole  in  the  protector, 
and  held  in  a  wire  chuck,  and  the  protector  is  secured  to  the  arms  of 


Fig.  n. 

the  balance  by  two  screws.  The  Bullock  protector,  shown  in  Fig.  17,  is 
designed  to  protect  the  balance  and  other  wheels  from  heat  while  draw- 
ing the  temper  from  staff  or  pinion  for  the  purpose  of  pivoting. 

BALANCE  SCREW  WASHERS.  All  watch  adjusters  and  ex- 
pert repairers  time  their  watches  by  the  balance  screws,  without  un- 
pinning  the  hairspring,  and  have  their  regulator  in  the  center.  After 
the  curve  of  the  hairspring  is  once  correct,  it  should  never  be  let  out 
or  taken  up.  The  portion  of  the  spring  where  it  is  pinned  is  naturally 
stiffer  and  often  abruptly  bent  to  make  the  first  coil  conform  to  the  stud 
and  regulator.  In  unpinning  the  spring  this  curve  is  necessarily  altered 
and  the  spring  thrown  out  of  the  center,  the  heat  and  cold  adjust- 
ment is  altered  and  the  isochronal  adjustment  often  entirely  destroyed. 

When  a  watch  has  timing  or  quarter  screws  and  they  move  in  or  out 
friction  tight,  you  can  w«ry  soon  bring  your  watch  to  time  without 


37  Balance   Staff. 

molesting  the  spring  and  have  the  regulator  in  the  center,  and  also  poise 
by  these  screws.  Very  often  some  of  these  timing  screws  are  so  tight 
that  there  is  danger  of  twisting  them  off.  You  will  also  find  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  watches  of  the  best  makes  do  not  have  timing  screws.  In 
this  case  time  by  a  pair  of  screws  opposite  the  balance  arms.  If  it  runs 
too  slow  lighten  an  opposite  pair  of  screws  (just  mentioned)  in  a  split 
chuck  or  file  in  the  slot  with  slotting  file.  If  it  runs  too  fast  put  a  pair 
of  washers  under  the  screws  near  the  balance  arms,  or  four  at  right 
angles  or  more  under  other  screws.  Whatever  may  be  required  in  pois- 
ing put  the  required  amount  on  the  light  side  of  the  balance  rim.  Do 
not  tamper  with  an  adjusted  hair-spring  or  any  other.  If  you  are 
anxious  to  do  your  work  quickly  and  accurately,  compare  your  seconds 
hand  with  that  of  the  regulator.     See  Poising  the  Balance. 

BALANCE  SPRING.     See  Hair  Spring. 

BALANCE  STAFF.  The  axis  or  staff  to  which  the  balance  is 
attached.  In  some  makes  of  watches  the  balance  staff  and  collet  are  one 
piece,  while  in  others  the  collet  is  made  of  brass  and  is  fitted  tightly  to  the 
staff. 

Making  a  New  Staff.  It  is  a  very  common  thing  for  American 
workman,  especially  those  who  reside  in  the  large  cities,  to  depend 
upon  the  stock  of  the  material  dealer  for  their  staffs.  The  country  watch- 
maker must,  however,  rely  upon  his  mechanical  ability,  and  even  in  the 
large  cities  the  workman  will  have  to  make  his  own  staffs  when  repair- 
ing many  foreign  watches.  The  following  instructions  relate  more 
particularly  to  staffs  for  American  watches,  though  they  may  be  applied 
to  foreign  watches  as  well.  Before  proceeding  further  I  would  call  the 
attention  of  the  trade  to  a  most  valuable  series  of  essays  on  the  balance 
staff,  published  in  the  columns  of  The  American  jeweler,  and  would 
advise  those  interested  to  read  them  carefully* 

The  material  used  should  be  the  best,  say  Stubb's  steel  wire,  a  little 
larger  in  diameter  than  the  largest  part  of  the  staff  and  a  trifle  longer 
than  the  old  one.  A  wire  that  fits  the  No.  45  hole  in  the  pinion  guage 
will  be  about  right  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

Put  this  in  the  split  chuck  of  your  lathe,  if  you  1 >,     q?       q?  B 

use  an  American  lathe,  and  rough  it  out  to  the  j 

form  shown  at  B  in  Fig.  iS.      If  you  use  a  ^——j/~ 

Swiss  or  wax-chuck  lathe,  the  form  of  chuck  Fig.  is. 

shown  at  A,  Fig.  18,  will  be  found  very  useful. f    It  is  made  from  a  piece 

of  brass  rod,  threaded  to  fit  the  lathe  spindle  and  bored  out  to  receive 

*  Making-  and  Replacing  the  Balance  Staff,  a  series  of  seventeen  essavs  published  in 
The  American  JezveUr  for  December,  iS8S,  and  January  to  September,  1SS9,  inclusive. 
The  Illustrations  are  from  these  essays. 

t  From  the  essay  by  "  Pasadena,"  American  Jeweler  March,  18S9. 


CD     ®  I^^O^^ 
"s — ^ 


Balance  Staff. 


38 


the  work,  which  is  held  by  set  screws,  three  or  four  at  each  end  of  the 
chuck.  By  the  aid  of  these  screws  the  work  may  be  held  very  firmly 
and  yet  can  easily  be  brought  to  center. 

After  bringing  the  work  to  the  general  form  of  the  staff,  in  the  rough, 
remove  from  the  lathe,  smear  with  soap  and  harden  by  heating  to  a 
cherry  red  and  plunge  endwise  into  oil.  Re-chuck  in  the  lathe,  and  while 
revolving,  whiten  by  applying  a  No.  ooo  emery  buff,  so  that  you  may 
observe  the  color  while  drawing  the  temper.  Now  place  the  roughed- 
out  blank  in  the  bluing  pan,  and  draw  to  a  deep  blue  in  color. 

The  heights  may  be  taken  from  the  old  staff,  providing  it  was  not 
faulty  and  is  at  hand,  but  all  things  considered  it  is  better  to  make  your 
measurements   and   construct  the  new  staff  independent  of  the  old  one. 

^  A  simple  tool,  and  one  which 

any  watchmaker  can  make,  is 
shown  in  Fig.   ig.      It  will  be 
N  found  very  convenient  in  taking 

the  measurements  of  heights  of 
a  staff^    It  consists  of  a  hollow 
Through  this  is  screwed  the  rod  C, 


m 


^ 


r 


Fig.  li). 
sleeve  A,  terminating  in  a  foot  B. 
terminating  in  a  pivot  Z>,  which  is  small  enough  to  enter  the  smallest 
jewel  To  ascertaiin  the  riglit  height  for  the  roller,  place  it  upon  the 
foot  B,  indicated  in  Fig.  20,  and  set  the  pivot  of  the  tool  in  the  foot  jewel, 
and  adjust  the  screw  until  the  roller  is  in  the 
proper  relation  to  the  lever  fork  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  In  Fig.  20  the  potence  and 
plate  of  the  watch  are  shown  in  section  at  A. 
The  roller  is  indicated  at  c  and  the  lever  fork 
at  d.  After  the  adjusting  of  the  roller  is  com- 
pleted, remove  the  tool  and  apply  it  to  the 
rough  staff  as  indicated  in  Fig  21,  at  ^,  and 
the  point  at  which  the  seat  for  the  roller 
should  be  cut  will  be  shown.  In  order  to 
ascertain  the  height  of  the  balance,  apply  the 
gauge  as  before  and  bring  the  points,  so  as  to  give  sufficient  clearance 
below  the  plate  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  at  B,  Fig.  20.  Then 
ippljr  the  gauge  to  the  work  as  indicated  at  B,  Fig.  21,  and  turn  the 


cC^^=^ 


e[j^^ 


Fig.  21. 

balance  seat  at  the  point  indicated.      The  diameter  of  the  seat  for  the 
roller,  balance  and  hairspring  collet,  can  be  taken  from   the  old   staff, 


t  Other  measuring  iastruments  for  this  purpose  will  be  found  under  Gauges. 


39 


Balance  Staff. 


1           1          1          t          1          1           r            1 

11 

1 

III              1       1    1    III    1    1    1 

ll 

1 

III          -T    1      111   1   1   1 

'          ' 

or  gauge  the  holes  with  a  taper  arbor  or  a  round  broach,  and  then  take 
the  size  from  the  broach  with  calipers. 

The  diameter  of  the  lower  pivot  should  be  taken  from  the  jewel,  and 
the  ordinary  pivot  gauge,  when  used  in  connection  with  a  round  pivot 
broach,  is  all  that  is  necessary  even 
for  the  finest  work.  At  A,  in  Fig. 
22,  is  shown  the  gauge,  each  divis- 
ion of  which  corresponds  to  about 
sB^oo  °^  *"  inch.     Slip  the  jewel  on 

the  broach  as  far  as  it  will  go  with- g     _  ^ ^ 

out  forcing,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  22,  '  "" 

and  then  take  the  size  of  the  broach,  •^'' 

close  up  to  the  jewel,  by  means  of  the  slit  in  the  gauge.  This  will  not 
give  you  the  exact  size  of  the  jewel  hole,  but  will  be  just  enough  smaller 
to  allow  of  the  proper  freedom  of  the  pivot. 

The  best  shape  for  the  pivots  is  shown  in   Fig.  23,  known  as  conical 
^  L— -— jv^ pivots;  the   straight    portion   of  the  pivot 

/  i      which   enters   the  jewel  hole  being  truly 

I.  r**'*^^^  cylindrical  and  about  ^Jq  of  an  inch  long. 

Fig,  23,  Many   very  good  workmen  employ  but 

one  graver  for  performing  the  entire  work,  but  it  is  better  to  have  at  least 
three,  similar  in  shape  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  23 ;  A  for  turning  the  staff 
down  in  the  rough,  B  for  under-cutting,  and  C  for  turning  the  conical 
shoulders  of  the  pivots.  A  graver  like  that  shown  at  D  will  be  found 
excellent  for  beginners  and  others  who  find  it  difficult  to   hold   the 


Fig.  24. 

shoulder  square  and  at  right  angles  to  the  staff  E,  without  leaving  a 
groove  in  one  or  the  other.  The  all  important  thing  is  to  keep  the 
gravers  sharp.  Upon  the  least  sign  of  their  not  cutting,  stop  the  work 
and  sharpen  them. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  position  in  which  the  graver  is  applied  to 
the  work.     It  must,  under  all  circumstances,  cut  and  not  scrape.     If  held 


Balance  StaS,  40 

as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  25,  it  will  cut  a  clean  shaving,  while  if  applied  as  at 
B,  it  will  only  scrape.    If  held  as  shown  at  C,  the  force  of  the  cut  will  be 
in  the  direction  of  the  hand,  as  indicated  by  the  arrow.     If  the  point 
A  should  catch  from  any  cause,  the  hand 

^'"'Ysv  )       /^    B  would   yield  and   no  harm  would  be 

^-^  *~*  ^"^^    f^  ■>     done,  while  if  held  as  at  Z>,  the  force  of 

the  cut  would  be  downward  upon  the 


cf 


"O —        r^lK-Xx  I   ^^^^t  ^s  indicated  by  the  arrow,  and  the 

^"^  ^      ""^^^  being  unyielding  catching  would 
Fig.  25.  be  dangerous. 

The  roughing  out  should  be  done  with  the  point  of  the  graver  held  as 
at  C,  Fig.  25,  and  then  finished  with  the  edge  held  diagonally  as  at  A, 
Fig.  26.  It  is  difficult  to  show  the  exact  position  in  the  cuts,  but  the  idea 
is  to  have  the  shavings  come  away  in  a  spiral  may  be  as  fine  as  a  hair, 
but  in  perfect  coils. 

To  turn  the  pivot,  hold  the  graver  nearly  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the 
lathe,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig  26,  and  catching  a  chip  at  the  extreme  end 
with  the  back  edge  of  the  graver^  /\  n 

push  forward  and  at  the  same  time  c[r>:t\->  C:trt=/'"^==5-->_. 
rolling    the    graver    towards    you,  \  ^^^:3~--l5 

which  will  give  the  pivot  the  conical 
form.      Very   small  pivots  can    be 

turned    in    this    way    with    perfect  Fig.  2S. 

safety,  and  very  smoothly.  Of  course,  this  method  of  turning  will  not 
give  sharp  corners;  such  places  as  the  seat  of  the  roller,  balance,  etc., 
must  be  carefully  done  with  the  point  of  the  graver. 

The  pivot  and  seat  of  the  roller  should  be  left  slightly  larger  than  re- 
quired, to  allow  for  the  grinding  and  polishing,  the  amount  of  which  will 
depend  upon  how  smoothly  the  turning  is  done.  The  grinding  is  done 
V  V  y>^  y         with  a  slip  of  bell-metal  or  soft 

\  /^  \        /  ^        \       ^"^^^  °^  ^^^^^  °^  ^^^  shape  shown 

\  \     {  \     at  A,  Fig.  27.     .ff  is  a  bell-metal 

Fig.  27.  polisher,  and  may  also  be  made 

of  box  wood.  A  should  be  used  with  oil-stone  powder  and  oil,  and  B 
with  crocus  and  diamantine  for  polishing. 

When  the  staS  is  finished  from  the  lower  pivot  to  the  seat  of  the  bal- 
ance, the  upper  part  should  be  roughed  out  nearly  to  size,  then  cut  off, 
reversed  in  the  lathe  and  the  top  part  finished.  It  is  better  to  do  this  in 
*  wax  chuck  even  if  you  use  a  split  chuck,  for  the  lower  part  of  the  staff 
is  tapered  and  it  is  ten  chances  to  one  that  you  could  select  a  split  chuck 
that  wouid  hold  it  true  and  firm  In  using  a  wax  chuck  the  important 
point  is  to  get  a  perfect  center.  It  should  be  turned  out  with  the  graver 
at  an  angle  of  about  60°,  care  being  taken  not  to  leave  a  little  "tit"  in 
the  center.  Before  setting  the  staff  in  the  wax  it  is  necessary  to  get  its 
full  length  as  follow :    Screw  the  balance  cock  in  place  with  both  cap 


41  Banking. 

jewels  removed,  and  if  the  cock  has  been  oent  up  or  down,  or  punched  to 
raise  or  lower  it,  see  that  it  is  straightened  and  put  right;  then  with  a 
degree  gauge  or  calipers  take  the  distance  between  the  outer  surfaces  of 
the  hole  jewels,  and  shorten  the  staff  with  a  file  to  that  length. 

A  very  handy  tool  can  be  made  by  adding  a  stop-screw  to  the  common 

double  calipers  as  shown  in  Fig. 
28.  The  improvement  is  that 
they  can  be  opened  to  remove 
from  the  work  and  closed  again 
exactly  the  same. 

When  fixing  the  staff  in   the 
Fig.  28.  chuck,  care  should  be  taken  not 

to  burn  the  wax.  Use  a  small  lamp  and  heat  the  chuck  until  the  wax 
will  just  become  fluid.  The  staff  should  be  set  in  the  wax  about  to  the 
seat  of  the  balance,  the  finished  pivot  resting  in  the  center  of  the  chuck, 
and  the  outer  end  trued  up  by  the  finger  and  the  point  of  a  peg  while 
the  wax  is  still  soft. 

Fig.  29  shows  it  with  the  staff"  finished,  but,  of  course,  it  is  not,  when 
put  in  the  wax.  The  dotted  lines  show  about  the  right  quantity  and 
shape  of  the  wax,  which  must  be  true  and  round,  or  in  cooling  it  will 

draw  the  work  out  of  center.     If  necessary,  when    ^... 

cool,  the  wax  can  be  turned  true  with   the  graver,   S  "^rin* 

again  heated  and  centered.     The  turning  and  finish-    1- — -■■   ■    ^S!Zf 
ing  is  to  be  done  as  previously  described.     The  seat  ^^^'  ^•**' 

for  the  balance  should  be  slightly  undercut  and  fitted  to  drive  on  tightly 
without  riveting.  Take  the  size  of  the  top  pivot  from  its  jewel  the  same 
as  the  lower.  The  ends  of  the  pivots  should  be  finished  as  flat  as 
possible,  and  the  corners  slightly  rounded.  When  done,  remove  from 
the  wax  and  boil  in  alcohol  to  clean,  and  it  is  ready  to  receive  the  bal- 
ance, which  should  first  be  poised  as  described  on  page  27. 

BANKING.  I.  The  striking  of  the  lever  on  the  banking  pins 
2.  The  striking  of  the  impulse  pin  on  the  lever,  owing  to  excessive 
vibration.  3.  The  striking  of  the  pin  in  the  balance,  in  cylinder  and 
verge  watches,  against  the  banking  pin. 

BANKING  ERROR.  When  by  a  sudden  circular  motion  of  the 
w^atch  in  the  plane  of  the  balance  (a  very  frequent  occurence  when 
wearing  the  watch,  or  winding  it  up  in  a  careless  way),  the  vibration 
increases  to  more  than  two  full  turns,  the  impulse-pin  strikes  against  the 
outside  of  the  fork,  which  cannot  yield,  because  it  is  leaning  against  the 
banking-pin  or  edge.  By  the  violence  of  this  percussion  there  is  some 
danger  of  injury,  not  only  to  the  ruby-pin,  but  also  to  the  balance-pivots, 
which  are  often  bent  or  broken  by  the  reaction.  But  more  than  that, 
all  such  cases  are  accompanied  by  a  considerable  acceleration  of  the  rate 


Banking  Pins. 


42 


of  the  watch,  producing  under  unfavorable  circumstances  great  dif- 
ferences in  its  time-keeping. 

BANKING  PINS.  The  two  pins  that  limit  the  motion  of  the  lever 
in  the  lever  escapement,  are  known  as  banking  pins.  The  pins  used 
for  limiting  the  motion  of  the  balance  in  verge  and  horizontal  escape- 
ments are  also  known  as  banking  pins.  The  two  pins  in  the  balance 
arm  which  limit  the  motion  of  the  balance  spring  in  pocket  chronome- 
ters are  also  known  as  banking  pins. 

BANKING  SCREWS,  i.  The  two  adjustable  screws  against 
which  the  lever  banks.  2.  In  the  chronometer  escapement  an  adjust- 
able screw  by  means  of  which  the  amount  of  locking  of  the  escape 
tooth  on  the  locking  jewel  is  limited. 

BARLEYS.  The  small,  diamond  shaped  projections  left  after 
engine  turning. 

BARLOW,  EDWARD.  An  English  clergyman  who  is  said  to 
have  invented  the  rack  striking  work  for  clocks.  With  this  mechan- 
ism, which  was  invented  in  1676,  clocks  could  be  made  to  repeat  the 
hour  at  will,  and  this  invention  was  quickly  followed  by  the  repeating 
watches  of  Quare.  Both  Barlow  and  Quare  applied  for  patents  on 
repeating  watches  and  the  English  government  finally  decided  in 
favor  of  the  latter  in  1687. 


BAR  MOVEMENT.  A  watch  movement  having  no  top  plate, 
but  in  lieu  thereof  are  bars, 
in  which  the  upper  pivots 
are  carried.  This  is  a  fav- 
orite form  among  Swiss 
watch  manufacturers  and  is 
used  largely  in  Jurgenson 
and  other  fine  repeaters.  See 
Fig.  30- 

BAROMETRIC  ER- 
ROR. The  error  in  a  clock's 
rate  due  to  changes  in  the 
density  of  the  atmosphere 
through  which  the  clock's 
pendulum  has  to  move.  jVj/.  30. 


48.  Barrel. 

BARREL.  A  cylindrical  box  made  of  brass  or  steel  in  which  the 
mainspring  of  a  watch  or  clock  is  confined.  Barrels  are  of  two  gen- 
eral types,  those  with  and  those  without  teeth  around  their  circum- 
ference. In  fuzee  watches  the  power  is  conveyed  to  the  fuzee  by 
means  of  a  chain  and  from  the  fuzee  to  the  center  pinion  by  means 
of  the  great  wheel  on  the  fuzee.  In  American  watches  the  barrel 
has  teeth  cut  upon  its  circumference  and  gears  directly  into  the  cen- 
ter pinion.  The  latter  type  is  generally  known  as  the  "going 
barrel."  The  going  barrel  is  again  divided  into  two  types,  one  which 
has  a  support  at  both  ends  of  the  arbor  and  the  other  which  is  sup- 
ported only  at  the  upper  end  by  the  ratchet  wheel.  This  latter  form, 
which  is  sometimes  termed  the  overhanging  barrel,  is  generally  found 
in  repeaters  and  complicated  watches,  where  economy  of  space  is 
found  desirable.  This  type  of  barrel  is  objectionable  even  in  the 
very  best  makes  of  watches  on  account  of  the  undue  friction  of  the 
ratchet  wheel  and  its  liability  to  become  out  of  upright  by  even  the 
smallest  amount  of  wear.  Where  this  style  of  barrel  is  used,  the 
objections  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  overcome  by  the  use  of  a  large 
ratchet  wheel  and  superior  fitting.  Of  late  years  steel  has  taken  the 
place  of  brass  for  barrels  very  largely,  especially  among  American 
makers,  but  these  barrels  do  not  find  favor  among  repairers  as  it  is 
very  difficult  to  replace  the  mainspring  hook  when  broken. 

The  barrel  dates  from  about  1500,  but  is  not  as  old  as  the  main- 
spring, for  there  are  many  examples  still  in  existence  of  antique 
watches  which  had  no  barrel  proper.  This  is  illustrated  by  a 
watch,  which  is  in  the  collection  of  Mr,  Carl  Marfels,  of  Berlin.  In 
this  specimen  the  mainspring  is  confined  within  the  limits  of  fbui 
iron  pins,  and  the  motion  is  conveyed  to  the  train  through  the 
medium  of  the  staff  and  a  great  wheel. 

BARREL  ARBOR.  The  barrel  axis,  around  which  the  mainspring 
coils.  M.  Rose  calls  attention  to  the  importance  of  the  proper  diame- 
ter of  barrel  arbors,  and  points  out  that  if  the  arbor  is  too  large  part 
of  the  elastic  reaction  of  the  spring  will  be  wasted,  and  if  too  small 
there  will  be  a  rupture  or  straining  of  the  spring  and  therefore  a  loss 
of  elastic  reaction.  It  is,  then,  he  says,  the  thickness  of  spring  that 
determines  the  diameter  of  the  arbor  or  conversely,  and  from  this  it 
follows  that  the  diameter  is  not  an  arbitrary  quantity,  since  it  depends 
on  the  duration  of  flexible  and  thickness  of  spring.     See  Mainsprings. 

BARREL  CONTRACTOR.  An  instrument  for  contracting  dis- 
torted mainspring  barrels.  It  consists  of  a  die  with  a  series  of  tapered 
holes  and  punches  to  correspond.  The  barrel  being  forced  into  a  hole 
slightly  smaller  than  its  circumference  necessarily  contracts. 


Barrel  Hook.  44 

BARREL  HOOK.  A  hook  in  the  barrel  to  which  the  mainspring 
IS  attached.  The  mainspring  is  sometimes  attached  by  means  of  a  hook 
on  the  spring  which  fit  in  a  hole  in  the  barrel. 

BARREL  RATCHET.  A  wheel  which  is  placed  on  the  barrel 
arbor  and  kept  from  turning  backward,  when  the  mainspring  is  wound, 
by  a  click  or  dog. 

BARTLETT,  P.  S.  The  first  ladies  watch  made  in  America  was 
turned  out  hy  the  American  Waltham  Watch  Co.,  in  1861  and  named 
the  P.  S.  Bartlett.  Previous  to  this  however,  in  1859  the  company 
placed  an  18  size  movement  on  the  market  which  was  named  the  P.  S. 
Bartlett,  but  its  manufacture  was  discontinued  in  1859.  Mr.  P.  S. 
Bartlett,  after  whom  these  movements  were  named,  was  born  in  Ames- 
bury,  Mass  ,  September  3,  1834.  His  first  connection  with  watchmaking 
was  in  1854,  when  he  went  to  work  for  the  Boston  Watch  Co.,  just  after 
its  removal  to  Waltham  Mass.,  where  he  occupied  the  position  of  fore- 
man of  the  plate  and  screw  department.  In  1864  he  visited  Chicago, 
and  together  with  Messrs.  Moseley,  Adams  and  Blake,  organized  the 
National  Watch  Co.,  of  Chicago,  afterwards  known  as  the  Elgin 
National  Watch  Co.  He  subsequently  signed  a  contract  with  the  com- 
pany for  five  years,  as  foreman  of  the  plate  and  screw  departments.  He 
was  for  seven  years  assistant  superintendent  and  general  traveling  agent 
for  the  company,  during  which  time  he  introduced  Elgin  watches  into 
Europe,  selling  them  in  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg  and  other  large  cities. 
He  is  now  in  the  wholesale  and  retail  watch  and  jewelry  bugines  in 
Elgin. 

BASCULE  ESCAPEMENT.  A  form  of  chronometer  escape- 
ment in  which  the  detent  is  mounted  on  a  pivoted  axis.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  pivoted  detent  escapement  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
spring  detent. 

BEAT.  The  striking  of  the  escape  wheel  upon  the  pallet  or  locking 
device.  When  an  escapement  is  in  adjustment,  so  that  the  striking  of 
the  escape  wheel  upon  the  pallets  is  even  and  equal  it  is  said  to  be  in 
beat  and  when  it  is  not  in  adjustment  it  is  said  to  be  out  of  beat.  The 
latter,  says  Saunier,  may  be  due  to  any  of  the  foliowing  causes:  i. 
One  or  even  both  of  the  pins  that  secure  the  hairspring  in  the  collet  and 
stud  are  loose.  2.  The  spring  is  strained  between  the  two  curb  pins. 
3.  The  Hairspring  stud  not  having  been  placed  immediately  over  the 
dot  on  the  balance  when  putting  the  escapement  together. 

BEAT  BLOCK.  A  device  for  obviating  the  necessity  of  marking 
the  balance  to  see  that  it  is  in  beat. 


45 


Beat  Pins. 


Before  taking  off  the  hair  spring  lay  it  on  the  bloclt,  turn  the  balance 
so  the  roller  pin  hits  on  the  side  the  arrow  points,  then  turn  the  table  so 
that  the  line  comes  under  the 
stud.  In  replacing  the  balance 
put  the  stud  over  the  line  and  it 
will  then  beat  the  same  as  before. 
By  using  this  tool  you  also  avoid 
getting  the  balance  out  of  true. 

BEAT  PINS.  Small  screws 
or  pins  to  adjust  the  position  of 
the  crutch  in  relation  to  the  pen-  ^'ff«  31, 

dulum.     The  pins  at  the  end  of  the  gravity  arms  that  give  impulse  to 
the  pendulum  in  a  gravity  escapement. 


BELL  METAL.     See  Alloys. 

BENCH.  An  excellent  arrangement  for  a  watchmaker's  bench  is 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  This  bench  was  designed  by  G.  W.  Laughlin  and 
is  complete  in  every  detail.     Benches   can   be  purchased   ready   made 


Fig.  32. 

from  almost  any  tool  and  material  house  in  the  country  but  many  pre- 
fer to  make  their  own  or  to  have  them  made  in  order  to  vary  the  details 
to  suit  their  peculiarities.     The  bench  shown  in  Fig.  33  is   one  of  the 


Benzine. 


46 


latest  designs  on  the  market,  the  points  claimed  for  it  being   that   it  is 

raised  sufficiently  from  the  ground  to  allow  sweeping  under  it,  its  small 

weight  and  its  low  price. 
The  frame  is  made  of  iron 
and  is  similar  to  those  used 
for  sewing  machines.  The 
foot  wheel  is  fastened  to 
the  iron  frame  on  the  left, 
instead  of  being  supported 
by  uprights  from  the  floor. 
It  is  neat  in  appearance, 
substantial,  and  reasonable 
in  price.  From  the  sketch 
(Fig.  32)  any  first-class 
cabinet  maker  should  be 
able  to  make  a  good  bench. 
This  bench  is  made  of 
black  walnut,  veneered 
■with  French  walnut  and 
bird's  eye  maple.  The  top 
is  twenty-one  inches  wide 
by  forty-one  long,  and  is 
thirty-three  inches  high. 
The  drawers  on  the  right 
hand  side  are  ten  inches 
wide.  In  the  center  are 
two  drawers  and  the  left 
hand  side  is  entirely  boxed 
Fig.  33.  in.     The  lathe  wheel  can 

be  varied  to  suit  the  ideas  of  the  watchmaker,  a  space  of  five  inches 

being  left  for  its  reception.     For  the  various  styles  see   Lathe    Wheels. 

Well  seasoned  black  walnut, 

cherry  or  red   cedar  are  the 

best  woods  for  a  bench.    The 

little  pin  attached  to  the  right 

hand  side  of  the   bench  is  a 

pegwood  cutter,  an   enlarged 

view   of  which   is  shown   in 

Fig.  34- 


ruj.  34. 


BENZINE.      A   light  oil  of  petroleum   used   for  cleaning  move- 
ments.    For  directions  for  use  see  Watch  Cleaning. 


BERTHOUD,  FERDINAND.     A  Swiss  horologist  who  was  born 
in  1729  and  died  in  1807.     At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  visited  Paris,  never 


47  Bevel  Gears. 

afterward  leaving  it.  Saunier  sajs  that  "his  technical  training  was 
matured  and  perfected  by  contact  with  the  great  masters  of  that  day,  of 
whom  he  subsequently  became  a  rival.  He  was  possessed  of  a  very 
extensive  knowledge  and  real  talent,  coupled  with  indefatigable  energy; 
these  are  sufficient  to  explain  and  justify  his  great  reputation.  He  pub- 
lished ten  quarto  volumes  on  horology.  Berthoud  did  much  valuable 
work,  and  his  name  will  therefore  long  remain  one  of  the  glories  of  the 
horological  art." 

BERTHOUD,  LOUIS.  A  French  chronometer  maker  and  nephew 
of  Ferdinand  Berthoud.     He  died  in  1813. 

BEVEL  GEARS.  Gears  in  which  the  two  wheels  working  to- 
gether stand  at  an  angle  to  each  other. 

BEZEL.  The  grooved  metal  ring  of  a  watch  or  clock  that  holds  the 
crystal  or  glass  in  position. 

BEZEL  CHUCK.     See  Chxich. 

BINDING  WIRE.  Fine  malleable  iron  wire  used  for  binding 
articles  while  soldering,  etc. 

BITE.  To  adhere  to;  to  hold  fast;  as  a  set  screw  bites  a  shaft.  The 
eating  of  metal  by  means  of  acid. 

BLOWER.  The  form  of  bellows  shown  in  Fig.  35  is  known  as  the 
Fletcher  Foot-Blower,  and  is  applicable  wherever  an  air-blast  is  required, 
either  for  the  blow-pipe  or  for  operat-  ^^ 

ing  melting  furnaces.      It  is  simple  ^^^^\r>*,. 

compact,  portable  and  powerful ;  giv-  K^     "x^^^^l^ 

ing  a  steady  blast  of  air  at  a  pres-  ^^^^^.    ^^^^^^ 

sure    of   from   one   to    nearly    two  ^^^^B^^^'Sr^^^ 

pounds  to  the  inch.     Two  patterns  ^nl^^^^RJI^^^^KB^^W 

of  this  blower  are   made,  one  with  ^'^jS'ffMJ^^^g^^^^^y 

the  air  reservoir  on  the  top  of  the    ^-         g/  ^Jjfa^gM^^Mpr  M 
bellows,  and  the  other  like  the  one    -        //      oB^n^i^MKt'V- 
shown    in    the    illustration.       The    -       //         ^^^^^^I^^^Pft 
latter  form  is  preferable,  as  it  obvi-  ^-  ff  -^^^^§1'-^ 

ates  the  risk  of  injury  to  the  rubber  ^^_  -     "     ""^^^^^^^^^jS 
reservoir  or  its  net,  by  dropping  tools 
or  corrosive  liquids  upon  them. 

BLOW-PIPE.  A  tapering  metal  tube,  used  to  direct  the  flame 
from  a  lamp  or  gas  jet  upon  an  article  for  soldering,  annealing  and  sim- 
ilar purposes. 


Bluestone. 


48 


Fig.  36  shows  the  automatic  hand  blow-pipe,  which  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  foot-blower.  One  of  the  rubber  tubes  shown  is  connected 
to  the  blower  and  the  other  to  the  gas  supply.     It  is  self-adjusting,  for 

both  gas  and  air,  requiring 
only  a  slight  motion  of  the 
ever,  shown  under  the 
thumb,  to  obtain  instantly 
any  flame  from  the  small- 
est to  the  largest.  Fig.  37 
shows  Poppen's  patent 
soldering  blow-pipe  lamp. 
In  this  lamp  the  flame  is 
Fig.  36.  made  by  igniting  the  fumes 

of  the  gasoline  contained  in  the  can  and  forced  through  the  pipe,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration.  Flame  can  be  made  any  size.  Unscrew  top 
A,  fill  can  one  quarter  with  gasoline  (this  fluid  gives  best  results),  handle 
same  as  an  ordinary  blow-pipe.   Blowing  through  pipe  B  causes  the  fluid 


Fig.  37. 

in  C  to  bubble,  which  separates  the  fumes  from  the  fluid  and  at  the  same 
time  forces  them  through  pipe  D  to  outlet  E,  then  light  wick  at  pipe  G. 
For  a  small  flame  insert  pin  F  in  outlet  E,  which  is  also  inserted  to 
preserve  the  strength  of  fluid  while  the  blow  pipe  is  not  in  use. 

BLUESTONE.  A  soft  blue  stone,  sometimes  used  for  reducing 
brass  and  gold  before  polishing.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  blue 
yitriol,  sometimes  called  bluestone. 

BLUING.     The  changing  of  the  color  of  steel  by  heat. 

BLUING  PAN.  A  pan  used  for  bluing  screws  and  other  small 
articles.  It  is  sometimes  very  desirable  to  match  the  color  of  screw 
heads  in  a  watch.  By  making  the  following  described  simple  little  tool 
you  can  very  readily  color  your  screws  straw,  purple,  or  blue,  as  the 
case  may  require,  to  match  the  other  screws  in  the  watch.  Select  a  very 
large  mainspring  barrel,  drill  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  barrel  the  size  of 
an  ordinary  pendulum  rod  for  an  American  clock,  cut  a  thread  in  this 


49  Bob. 

hole  and  also  on  the  piece  of  wire  and  screw  it  firmly  into  the  main, 
spring  barrel,  cutting  off  about  four  or  five  inches  long,  to  which  attach 
a  neat  piece  of  wood  to  serve  as  a  handle.  Now  take  out  the  head  and 
fill  the  barrel  full  of  fine  marble  dust  or  brass  or  iron  filings  and  replace 
the  head  in  the  barrel,  after  which  drill  any  number  and  size  of  holes   in 

the  barrel  you  wish,  to  accom- 
modate   all    sizes    of     watch 


D  screws,  and  the  tool  is  ready 
for  use.     Bluing  pans,  similar 
Fig.  38,  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  38, 

can  be  purchased  from  material  dealers,  and  are  similar  to  the  one  des- 
cribed.  After  fitting  the  screw  to  the  proper  place  in  the  watch,  harden 
and  temper  in  the  usual  manner.  Polish  out  all  the  scratches  or  other 
marks,  and  iclecting  a  hole  in  the  tool  to  fit  the  screw  loosely,  pre«8  it 
down  level  with  the  face  of  the  barrel  and  hold  the  tool  over  a  imall  alco- 
hol lamp  flame  until  the  color 
desired  appears.  Heat  up 
slowly  and  the  effect  will  be 
much  better  than  if  it  is  done  Fig.  39. 

rapidly.  First  blue  the  screws  without  any  special  regard  as  to  uniformity 
of  color.  Should  they  prove  to  be  imperfect,  take  a  piece  of  clean  pith 
and  whiten  the  surface  with  rouge,  without  letting  it  be  too  dry.  Pieces 
when  thus  prepared,  if  cleaned  and  blued  with  care  will  assume  a  very 
uniform  tint. 

Soft  screws  are  sometimes  very  difficult  to  blue  evenly,  but  this  diflli- 
culty  may  be  overcome  by  finishing  them  with  a  slightly  soapy  bur- 
nisher. Bluing  shovels,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  39,  can  be  purchased 
from  material  dealers. 

Pieces  that  are  not  flat  will  rarely  assume  an  even  color  when  placed 
In  a  flat  pan.  To  overcome  this  dificulty,  sprinkle  the  bottom  of  the 
pan  with  fine  brass  filings  or  marble  dust  and  press  the  article  into  it. 
The  bluing  pan  or  shovel  should  be  thoroughly  warmed  before  the 
articles  are  placed  in  it,  in  order  that  any  moisture  present  may  be 
dispersed. 

BOB.     The  metal  weight  at  the  bottom  of  the  pendulum. 

BOILING-OUT    PAN.     A   copper    or  brass  pan,  which    is  also 

known  under  the  name 

of  pickle  pan.    It  is  used 

for  boiling  steel  pieces  in 

alcohol   to  remove  shel- 

Fi^,  40.  lac,  and  for  boiling  out 

jewelry  after  soldering.      For  the  latter  purpose  use  sulphuric  acid  one 

part,  and  water  fifteen  to  twenty  parts. 


Bort.  ^(i 

The  pan,  which  is  shown  at  Fig.  40,  will  also  be  found  useful  for  tem- 
pering small  steel  articles  by  boiling  them  in  oil. 

BORT.  A  collective  name  for  diamonds  of  inferior  quality,  espec- 
ially such  as  have  a  radiating  crystalization,  so  that  they  will  not  take  a 
polish.  These  are  crushed  to  form  diamond  powder,  or  diamond  dust, 
■which  Is  used  for  cutting  and  polishing  diamonds  and  other  precious 
stones ;  also  the  steel  work  of  watches,  and  other  instruments  of  pre- 
cision. 

BOTTOMING  FILE.      A   file  constructed   like    those  shown    in 


^  ^=1L       ^  IN- 

Fig.  41. 

Fig.  41,  so  that  it  may  be  used  for  filing   sinks,  or  other  depressions, 
where  an  ordinary  file  cannot  be  brought  into  use. 

BOUCHON.  A  hard  brass  tubing  sometimes  inserted  in  watch 
and  clock  plates  to  form  pivot  holes,  and  known  in  America  as  bushing 
vrire.    See  Bushing. 

BOW.  A  device  now  obsolete,  which  consisted  of  a  strip  of  whale- 
bone, to  both  ends  of  which  a  cord  or  gut  was  attached,  and  which  was 
used  to  rotate  a  drill  or  mandril,  before  the  introduction  of  watchmakers 
lathes. 

The  ring  of  a  watch  case,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the  chain.  See 
also  Pendant  Bow 

BoTV  Tightener.     See  Pendant  Borv  Tightener. 

BOW  COMPASSES.    A  pair  of  compasses  furnished  with  a  bow 

pen  for  describing  circles  with  ink.  Fig. 
42  illustrates  the  ordinary  form  of  these 
implements,  although  they  are  some- 
times used  in  combination  compasses, 
which  are  made  to  hold  steel  points  and 
F'g-  «.  pencils  as  well. 

BOW  PEN.  A  metallic  ruling  pen,  similar  to  the  one  attached  to 
the  bow  compasses. 

BOXWOOD.  The  fine,  hard-grained  timber  of  the  box,  much  used 
by  wood  engravers,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  musical  and  mathemat- 
ical instruments,  etc.  The  wood  is  very  free  from  gritty  matter,  and  on 
that  account  its  saw-dust  is  much  used  in  cleaning  jewelry,  drying  small 
polished  articles,  etc. 


51  Brass. 

BRASS.  An  alloj,  consisting  of  about  65  parts  of  copper  to  35  parts 
of  zinc.  This  proportion  is  varied,  according  to  the  uses  to  which  the 
alloy  is  to  be  put. 

Brass  Polishes,  i.  Rottenstone  4  oz.,  oxalic  acid,  powdered,  102.; 
sweet  oil,  i}^  oz  ;  turpentine  to  make  a  paste;  apply  with  soft  leather. 
2.  Equal  parts  of  sulphur  and  chalk,  made  into  a  paste  with  vinegar. 
Allow  to  dry  on  the  article  and  clean  with  a  chamois  brush.  3.  Dip  the 
brass  in  a  mixture  of  1  oz.  alum,  i  pint  lye,  and  polish  with  tripoli  on  a 
chamois.     This  gives  a  brilliant  luster. 

Magic  Polish  for  Brass.  Add  to  sulphuric  aciJ  half  its  bulk  of 
bichromate  of  potash;  dilute  with  an  equal  weight  of  water,  and  applj 
well  to  the  brass;  rinse  it  well  immediately  with  water,  wipe  dry,  and 
polish  with  pulverized  rotten  stone. 

Polishing  Paste  for  Brass.  Dissolve  15  parts  of  oxalic  acid  in  120 
parts  of  boiling  water,  and  add  503  parts  of  pumice  powder,  7  of  oil 
of  turpentine,  60  of  soft  soap,  and  65  of  fat  oil.  The  polishing  agent  is 
usually  mixed  with  oil,  alcohol  or  water,  to  prevent  scattering,  and  is 
then  applied  to  the  polishing  tool  in  the  shape  of  cloth  and  leather  buffs, 
polishing  files,  etc.  Either  the  work  or  the  tool  should  revolve  with 
great  velocity,  in  order  to  secure  good  results.  Many  articles  are 
brought  to  a  high  degree  of  polish,  by  the  use  of  the  burnisher,  after 
subjecting  them  to  the  action  of  the  ordinary  polishing  agents. 

Etching  Fluids  for  Brass,  i.  Dissolve  6  parts  chlorate  of  pot- 
ash, 100  parts  water,  add  160  parts  water  to  16  of  fuming  nitric  acid; 
mix  the  two  solutions.  2.  One  part  sulphuric  acid,  8  parts  water.  3. 
One  part  nitric  acid,  8  parts  water.  4.  Nitric  or  sulphuric  acid  1  part 
saturated  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  2  parts,  water  5  parts. 

Gold  Yellow  for  Brass.  A  gold  like  appearance  may  be  given  to 
brass  by  the  use  of  a  fluid  prepared  by  boiling  for  about  15  minutes,  4 
parts  caustic  soda,  4  parts  milk  sugar,  and  100  parts  water,  after  which 
4  parts  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  is  added  with 
constant  stirring.  The  mixture  is  then  cooled  to  79  degrees  C,  and  the 
previously  well  cleaned  articles  are  for  a  short  time  laid  into  it.  When 
left  in  it  for  some  time  they  will  first  assume  a  blueish  and  then  a  rain- 
bow color. 

Lacquers  for  Brass.  i.  Dragon's  blood  40  grains;  seed  lac  6 
ounces;  amber  and  copal,  triturated  in  a  mortar,  2  ounces;  oriental  saf- 
fron, 36  grains;  alcohol  40  ounces;  extract  of  red  sanders  ^  dram; 
coarsely  powdered  glass  4  ounces.  2.  Gamboge,  seed  lac,  annatto, 
dragon's  blood,  each  i  ounce;  y^  pints  alcohol,  ^  ounce  saffron. 


Breguot  Spring.  53 

Gold  Lacquer  for  Brass.  Twenty  four  grains  extract  red  sanders 
wood  in  water,  60  grains  dragon's  blood,  2  ounces  amber,  6  ounces 
seed  lac,  2  ounces  gamboge,  36  grains  oriental  saffron,  36  ounces  pure 
alcohol,  4  ounces  powdered  glass.  The  amber,  gamboge,  glass,  drag- 
on's blood  and  lac  should  be  thoroughly  pounded  together.  Intuse  the 
saffron  and  the  sanders  wood  extract  in  the  alcohol  for  24  hours.  Pour 
this  over  the  other  ingredients  and  strain. 

Lacquer  for  Brass.  Coat  it  with  the  following  varnish;  i  part 
while  shellac  and  5  alcohol;  1  shellac,  i  mastic,  7  alcohol;  or  2  sandarac, 
8  sihellac,  i  Venetian  turpentine,  50  alcohol;or,  12  parts  sandarac,  6  mas- 
tic, 2  elemi,  i  Venetian  turpentine,  64  alcohol.  Clean  the  article  well, 
do  not  touch  with  your  hands,  and  warm  to  about  75*^  C. 

Blackening  Brass.  Dissolve  pure  copper  in  a  mixture  of  nitric 
acid  and  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  acid  to  four  of  water. 
Heat  the  article  to  be  blackened  over  a  Bunsen  burner,  dip  it  into 
the  solution  and  again  heat  it  over  the  flame.  Upon  the  first  appli- 
cation of  heat  the  article  will  turn  green,  but  this  gives  place  in  a 
few  minutes  to  a  dead  black.  On  account  of  the  heating  this  method 
cannot  be  employed  for  articles  which  have  been  soldered,  although 
it  is  the  very  best  for  fine  work  of  every  description.  Should  a  pol- 
ished surface  be  preferable  to  a  dead  black,  a  coat  of  lacquer  may  be 
applied.  For  rough  work,  mix  lampblack  with  gold  size  and  apply 
with  a  soft  brush.  This  mixture  may  be  thinned  with  turpentine. 
If  a  gloss  is  desired  add  gold  size,  if  a  dull  black  add  more  lamp- 
black. 

BREGUET,  ABRAHAM  LOUIS.  Born  in  Switzerland  in  1747 
and  died  in  Paris  in  1823.  An  eminent  watchmaker  of  French  par- 
entage, and  the  inventor  of  the  form  of  hairspring  of  that  name.  He 
was  endowed  with  great  ingenuity  and  a  taste  for  complicated  and 
remarkable  mechanisms. 

BREGUET   SPRING.     See  Hair  Spring. 

BRIDGE.  The  standard  secured  to  the  plate,  by  means  of  screws, 
and  in  which  a  pivot  works. 

BROCOT  SUSPENSION.  The  method  of  suspending  a  pen- 
dulum which  is  in  use  on  nearly  all  mantel  clocks  of  modern  make,  by 
means  of  which  they  may  be  regulated  from  the  front  of  the  dial  by 
means  of  a  key. 

BROACH.  A  tapering  piece  of  steel  used  for  enlarging  holes  and 
made  with  from  two  to  eight  cutting  edges.  Some  broaches  are  made 
without  cutting  edges  and  are  called  polishing  broaches.    They  are  used 


53  Bronzing. 

for  burnishing  pivot  holes.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  handles 
of  your  broaches  are  properly  fitted  so  that  they  revolve  truly.  To  test 
this,  rest  the  points  against  the  fingers  of  one  hand  and  causing  the 
handle  to  rotate  by  two  fingers  of  the  other  hand  and  the  broach  itself 
should  appear  to  remain  true.  Sealing  wax  answers  the  purpose  as  a 
handle  for  broaches  very  nicely,  and  the  broach  can  be  centered  in  it 
without  much  trouble,  in  the  latter  case  hold  the  broach  between  two 
fingers  with  the  handle  downward,  and  rotate  it  while  close  to  the  flame 
of  an  alcohol  lamp,  so  that  the  sealing  wax  forms  a  regular  oblong 
handle.  It  is  well  to  gently  draw  a  piece  of  iron  charged  with  rouge 
along  the  edges  of  pivot  broaches  in  order  to  remove  the  thread  of  metal 
from  them.  Minute  particles  of  this  thread  might  otherwise  remain  in 
the  holes,  and  occasion  wear  of  the  pivots. 

To  Broach  a  Hole  Vertically.  It  is  quite  a  serious  thing  for 
young  watchmakers  to  broach  a  hole  vertically ,  a  hole  in  a  plate,  or  that 
in  a  barrel,  is  seldom  maintained  at  right  angles  to  the  surface,  when 
they  have  occasion  to  employ  a  broach.  They  may  be  certain  of  suc- 
cess, however,  by  adopting  the  following  method:  Take  a  cork  of  a 
diameter  rather  less  than  that  of  the  barrel  or  other  object  operated 
upon,  and  make  a  hole  in  the  length  of  the  cork  through  which  the 
broach  can  be  passed.  When  the  cork  has  been  turned  quite  true  on 
its  end  and  edge,  the  broach  is  passed  through,  and  used  to  enlarge  the 
hole ;  by  pressing  against  the  back  of  the  cork,  it  is  kept  against  the 
barrel,   whereby  the  broach  is  maintained  in  a  vertical  position. 

To  Solder  Broken  Broaches.  Steel  broaches  and  other  tools  are 
soldered  by  cleaning  well  the  parts  broken,  then  dipping  them  into  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  and  soldering  them  with  ordinary  soft 
solder.    The  joint  is  a  good  one  and  will  stand  ordinary  hard  wear. 

BRONZING.     See  Electro- Platings  Bronzing  and  Staining. 

BUFF.     A  device  for  polishing  or  reducing  metals.     Emery  buffs 

are  round  or  square  sticks 
on  which  emery  paper  or 
cloth  is  glued.  They  are 
used  to  reduce  the  surfaces 
of  metal.  Fig.  43  illustrates 
^^3-  *'•  a  ring  buft'used  for  polishing 

the  inside  of  rings,  preferably  used  on  a  polishing  lathe. 

BULLSEYE.  A  thick  watch  resembling  a  bull's  eye  in  shape.  A 
term  usually  applied  to  old  fashioned  English  verge  watches. 


Burnisher.  54 

BURNISHER.  A  polished  steel  or  agate  tool  used  for  glogsing  the 
the  surface  of  metals.  Fig.  44  is  a  jewel  burnisher.  The  article  to  be 
burnished  must  be  first  freed  from  all  scratches,  for  scratches  would 
only  be  brought  out  more  prominently  by  the  use  of  the  burnisher.  The 
burnisher  must  be  kept  highly  polished  or  you  cannot  e.xpect  to  do  good 
work  with  it.  Saunier  gives  the  following  method  of  re -facing  a  bur- 
nisher:  Prepare  a  dry  smooth  piece  of  wood,  rather  thick,  and  of  a 
width  equal  to  the  length  of  the  burnisher.  On  this  board  carefully  glue 
a  piece  of  emery  paper  of  a  fineness  corresponding  to  the  degree  of  cut 


Fig.  44. 

required,  stretching  it  as  even  as  possible,  and  turning  the  edges  down 
towards  the  under  side.  Then  lay  the  board  on  a  firm  smooth  surface, 
resting  a  weight  upon  it,  and  allow  it  to  dry.  In  using  this  lap,  it  is  fixed 
or  allowed  to  rest  against  the  side  of  the  bench ;  holding  the  burnisher 
with  two  hands  at  its  extremities,  the  workman  places  himself  at  one  end 
of  the  board,  and  draws  the  burnisher  along  it  towards  him,  maintaining 
the  surface  quite  flat  and  applying  considerable  pressure.  On  reaching 
the  nearer  end,  raise  it,  and  after  again  placing  it  on  the  furthest  end, 
draw  towards  the  body,  and  so  on.  By  proceeding  in  this  manner  all 
risk  of  rounding  the  angle  will  be  avoided. 

BUSH.  A  perforated  piece  of  metal  let  into  a  plate  to  receive  the 
wear  of  pivots.     See  Bouchon. 

Bushing  Pivot  Holes.  The  bush  may  be  either  a  turned  or  tapped 
one.  A  bush  is  selected  as  small  as  the  pivot  will  admit.  Open  the 
hole  in  the  plate  or  cock  and  finish  with  a  rat-tail  file.  Slightly  taper 
the  end  of  the  bush  with  a  fine  file  until  it  will  fit  the  hole.  With  a  knife 
score  the  bush  just  above  the  edge  of  the  plate  and  press  it  firmly  into 
the  hole.  Break  off  the  bush  at  the  point  scored  and  drive  it  firmly  into 
place  by  means  of  the  bushing  punch  shown  at  Fig.  45,  and  you  will 
find  your  bush  is  riveted  firmly  into  the  plate.  Observe  the  endshake 
your  pinion  requires  and  make  due  allowance  when  finishing  off  your 
bushing.  In  bushing  a  plate,  particularly  where  the  bushing  must  be 
large,  some  watchmakers  prefer  to  use  a  solid  wire  and  drill  the  hole 
after  fitting.  If  this  method  is  followed  be  careful  to  see  tliat  you  accu- 
rately center  the  work  before  drilling,  and  drill  first  with  a  small  drill, 
subsequently  passing  through  a  larger  one,  or  open  up  the  hole  by 
means  of  a  small  broach.  It  is  always  well  to  use  bushing  wire  with  a 
hole  smaller  than  is  ultimately  required,  and  enlarging  afterwards  while 
the  work  is  centered  in  the  lathe.     A  tapped   bushing  is  very  firm,  but 


53  Bushing  Punch. 

unless  the  tlireads  are  well  made  is  apt  to  be  out  oi  center  The  closing 
hole  punch  shown  in  Fig.  45  often  obviates  the  use  of  a  bushing,  if  skill- 
fully used. 

To  Bush  a  Wheel.  A  watch  will  frequently  stop  because  a  wheel 
is  improperly  centered  in  itself,  whereby  one  side  will  gear  too  deep,  the 
other  too  shallow,  into  the  pinion  driven  by  it.  Such  a  wheel  likely  is 
of  the  proper  size  and  has  good  teeth,  but  the  difficulty  is  its  proper  cen- 
tering, when  fitted  to  its  pinion.  The  following  will  be  found  to  be  an 
easy  way  of  correction.  Take  a  piece  of  lead  of  about  the  thickness  of  a 
silver  half  dollar,  and  clip  and  file  it  round  so  that  it  will  fit  into  one  of 
the  larger  steps  in  a  step  chuck  of  an  American  lathe.  Screw  it  fast  into 
the  lathe,  and  while  revolving,  center  and  drill  a  hole  of  about  the  size 
of  a  winding  arbor.  Then,  with  a  graver,  turn  out  a  recess,  the  size  and 
a  trifle  more  than  the  thickness  of  the  wheel,  so  that  it  will  fit  in  exact, 
with  its  teeth  touching  the  outside  of  the  cut.  Drive  the  wheel  from  its 
pinion,  and  broach  out  the  center,  so  as  to  take  a  bush  of  sufficient 
length,  which  should  be  firmly  riveted  in  and  filed  smooth  on  the  lower 
side.  Turn  a  small  groove  around  the  outside  of  the  cut  in  the  lead, 
crowd  in  the  wheel,  with  a  burnisher  set  as  a  gavel.  This  fixes  the 
wheel  perfectly  true  on  the  outside.  Now  center  and  drill,  leaving  a 
little  to  be  turned  with  a  fine  polished  graver,  to  fit  the  same  pinion. 
Rivet  on,  and  your  wheel  is  all  right. 

BUSHING  OR  CLOSING  HOLE  PUNCH.  This  tool  is  very 
simple  in  construction  and  will  be  found  very  useful  in  repairing  both 
watches  and  clocks.      Fig.  45,  Goeggel's  Bushing  and  Closing  Hole 


Fig.  45. 

Punch,  consists  of  two  counter-sunk  steel  punches,  with  a  post  in  the 
lower  punch.  In  using,  fasten  the  lower  punch  in  vise  and  place  the 
work  over  it.  They  are  made  in  various  sizes  for  watches  and  clocks 
and  are  quite  inexpensive 

BUSHING  WIRE.  Hard  brass  tubing  for  bushing  the  pivot  holes 
of  watches  and  clocks.  This  wire  is  kept  by  most  material  houses  in  the 
various  sizes  applicable  to  watch  and  clock  work,  and  is  put  up  in  assort- 
ed sizes.     See  Bouchon  and  Bush. 

BUTTING.  The  touching  of  the  points  of  the  teeth  of  two  wheels 
acting  with  one  another.  It  is  caused  by  the  wheels  being  planted  incor- 
rectly, or  by  pinions  or  wheels  of  improper  size.  See  Depthing  Tool 
and  Wheels  and  Pinions, 


Calipers. 


66 


CALIPERS.  Compasses  having  two  curved  legs  or  fingers  pivoted 
together  and  used  either  to  measure  the  inside  or  outside  diameter  of 
bodies.  Calipers  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
known  as  inside  and  outside  calipers.  They  are 
used  by  watchmakers  for  determining  the  diam. 
eter  of  staffs  and  pinions,  for  testing  the  truth  of 
wheels,  etc.  Calipers  are  sometimci  used  in  pois- 
ing balances,  the  balance  staff  being  centered 
between  the  points  of  the  caliper*.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  hole  is  drilled  in  the  calipers  and  jewels 
are  inserted.  Thompson's  jeweled  calipers,  shown 
in  Fig.  46,  have  garnet  jewels  inserted  in  the 
points  of  the  arms  at  one  end,  and  hardened  steel 
bearings  in 
the    other.     ..  ... . 

1 


Fig.  46. 


The  Euclid 
Double  Cal- 
ipers   are 


very  useful  tools,  as  they  give  on 

the  lower  limbs  an  inside  measure-  Fig.  47. 

ment  corresponding  to  the  outside  measurement  of  the  upper  limbs. 

By  adding  a  stop  screw  to  the  common  double  calipers  as  shown  in  Fig. 

47,  a  very  handy  tool  can  be  made,  as  the  tool  can  be  opened  and 

removed  from  the  work  and  closed  again  exactly  the  same  amount. 

See  Gauge. 


CALLET,  F.     A  thorough  mechanic  and  skilled  calculator, 
was  born  at  Versailles,  France,  in  1744,  and  died  in  1798. 


He 


CARBORUNDUM.  A  substitute  for  diamond  powder,  used  in  pol. 
ishing.  It  is  made  in  two  grades.  No.  i,  which  is  an  olive  tinted  pow- 
der, is  used  by  lapidaries  for  polishing  the  facets  of  gems,  as  it  is  so 
much  finer  than  diamond  powder  that  a  superior  finish  can  be  secured 
on  the  gem  by  its  use.  It  is  also  much  cheaper  than  diamond  powder. 
No.  2  is  a  black  powder,  which  resembles  the  other  in  hardness,  but  is 
impure  and  still  cheaper.  It  has  extensive  use  among  metal  workers  as 
an  abrasive.  Both  varieties  are  used  by  watchmakers  in  the  various 
polishing  operations,  as  substitutes  for  diamond  powder,  bort,  diaman- 
tine,  etc. 

CAM.  A  moveable  piece  of  irregular  contour,  so  shaped  as  to  give  a 
variable  motion  to  another  piece  pressing  against  it  by  sliding  or  rolling 
contact. 

CANNON  PINION.  The  pinion  to  which  the  minute  hand  is 
attached ;  so  called  on  account  of  the  pipe  attachment  resembling  a 
cannon. 


57  Cap. 

To  Tighten  a  Cannon  Pinion.  The  cannon  pinion  is  sometimes 
too  loose  upon  the  center  arbor.  Grasp  the  arbor  lightly  with  a  pair  of 
cutting  nippers,  and  hy  a  single  turn  of  the  nippers  around  the  arbor, 
cut  or  raise  a  small  thread  thereon.  . 

CAP.  The  part  of  the  case  that  covers  the  movement.  A  thin  metal 
cover  used  in  some  English,  Swiss  and  German  watches  to  cover  the 
movement  and  attached  by  studs  and  a  sliding  bar  or  spring. 

CAPILLARY  ATTRACTION  AND  REPULSION.  The 
cause  which  determines  the  ascent  or  descent  of  certain  fluids  when  in 
contact  with  certain  solid  substances.     See  Oil  Sinks. 

CAPPED  JEWEL.     A  jewel  having  an  end  stone  as  shown  in 

Fig.  48.     In  all  movements,  except  the      

cheapest  grades,  capped  jewels  are  used    ^/""^jW^  ;  isT4 

fof  the  balance  pivots.  ''k^/«'^.fe-'s^^'^^^*""^'-  ■-''^  ^W% 

CARDINAL  POINTS.    The  four 

intersections  of  the  horizon  with   the  ^^0-  *s. 

meridian  and  the  prime  vertical  circle,  or   North  and    South,  East 

and  West. 

CARON,  PETER  AUGUSTUS.  A  celebrated  French  watch- 
maker, born  January  25th,  1732,  in  the  Rue  St.  Denis,  Paris.  When 
nineteen  years  of  age  he  invented  an  escapement  known  in  France  as  the 
double  virgule,  which  may  be  said  to  be  a  combination  of  the  cylinder 
and  duplex.  He  disputed  in  1753,  with  Lepaute,  the  honor  of  being  the 
inventor,  and  was  awarded  the  merit  of  the  discovery  by  the  Academy 
of  Sciences,  on  February  24, 1754.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  obtained 
a  situation  at  court,  under  Louis  XV.,  and  received  permission,  on  giv- 
iug  up  the  watch  business,  to  style  himself  Monsieur  de  Beaumar,  and 
under  this  name  he  wrote  and  published  two  well  known  works,  the 
"  Barber  of  Seville"  and  "  The  Marriage  of  Figaro." 

CARRIER.  A  piece  fastened  to  work  in  a  lathe  and  connecting  it 
with  the  face  plate.     A  dog. 

CASE-HARDENING.  A  process  of  carbonizing  the  surface  of 
wrought  iron,  thus  converting  it  into  steel.     See  Steel. 

CASE  SPRINGS.  The  springs  in  a  watch  case  that  cause  it  to  fly 
open  and  that  keep  it  in  position  when  closed. 


Case  Spring  Vise. 


58 


Adjustable  Case  Springs.  The  Harstrom  Adjustable  Case  Spring 
shown  in  Fig.  49  is  easily  fitted  and  is  said  to  be  a  very  excellent  spring. 
The  holder  should  be  fitted  securely  in  a  vice  and  with  a  three  cornered 

file  cut  down  near  the  rear  end  on 
the  back  of  the  spring  enough  to  rest 
a  punch  against;  then  with  a  tap  of 
a  hammer  you  can  move  it  back- 
Fig,  49.  wards.      To   move   it  forward,  rest 

your  punch  against  the  end  of  the  spring.  Thus  you  can  easily  make 
it  correspond  with  the  screw  hole  in  the  case.  Then,  near  to  where  it 
protrudes  from  the  holder,  bend  the  spring  upward  enough  to  make  the 
front  end  level  with  the  upper  edge  of  holder,  or  move,  if  greater 
strength  is  required. 


CASE  SPRING  VISE.  The  Boss  case  spring  tool,  shown  in  Fig. 
50,  is  a  very  handy  little  tool.  By  turning 
the  thumb  screw  you  can  bind  the  spring 
in  the   desired  position  and   hold  it  there 


Fig.  51. 
until  the   screw  is  inserted  in  its  proper 
place.    It  will  be  found  much  handier  than 
the  ordinary  plyer-shaped  tools  designed  for  the  same  purpose.    Another 
form  of  case  spring  vise  is  Hall's,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  51. 


Fig.  50. 


CASE  STAKE.     A  stake   made  with  a  large   head,   generally  of 
steel,  and  used  for  taking  out  dents  from  battered  watch  cases.    The 


Fig.  52. 
stake  shown  in  Fig.  52  is  of  the  reversible  pattern,  and  while   using  is 
held  in  the  vise. 


CEMENTS.  Cement  for  use  in  the  lathe  can  be  purchased  from 
material  dealers  generally,  at  so  small  a  cost  that  it  will  scarcely  pay  the 
watchmaker  to  bother  in  preparing  it,  but  circumstances  often  arise 
where  a  cement  is  desirable  for  other  purposes,  such  as  attaching  metal 
letters  to  show  windows,  etc.,  and  the  following  recipes  will  be  fount* 
very  reliable: 


59  Cements. 

Acid-Proof  Cement.  A  cement  that  resists  acid  is  made  by  melting 
one  part  India  rubber  with  two  parts  linseed  oil ;  add  sufficient  white 
bolus  for  consistency.  Neither  muriatic  nor  nitric  acid  attack  it;  it 
softens  a  little  in  heat,  and  its  surface  does  not  dry  easily ;  which  is  pro. 
duced  by  adding  one-fifth  part  litharge. 

Alabaster  Cement.  Melt  alum  and  dip  the  fractured  faces  into  it; 
then  put  them  together  as  quickly  as  possible.  Remove  the  exuding 
mass  with  a  knife. 

Alabaster  Cement,  i.  Finely  powdered  plaster  of  Paris  made  into  a 
paste  with  water.  2.  Melt  rosin,  or  equal  parts  of  yellow  rosin  and  bees- 
wax, then  stir  in  half  as  much  finely  powdered  plaster  of  Paris.  The 
first  is  used  to  join  and  to  fit  together  pieces  of  Alabaster  or  marble,  or 
to  mend  broken  plaster  figures.  The  second  is  to  join  alabaster,  marble, 
and  other  similar  substances  that  will  bear  heating. 

Amber  Cement.  For  cementing  amber  and  meerschaum,  make  a 
thick  cream  of  finely  powdered  quicklime  and  white  of  egg,  apply  with  a 
camel's  hair  brush,  dry  slowly  and  scrape  off  surplus  after  thoroughly 
dry. 

Acid  Proof  Cement.  Form  a  paste  of  powdered  glass  and  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  silicate  of  soda. 

Cement  for  Thitt  Metal  Sheets.  Cut  isinglass  into  small  pieces 
and  dissolve  in  a  little  water  at  a  moderate  heat;  add  a  small  quantity  of 
nitric  acid,  the  quantity  being  determined  by  experiment;  with  too  much 
acid  the  cement  dries  too  slowly,  while  with  too  little  it  does  not  adhere 
well. 

Cement  for  Glass  and  Brass.  Melt  together  i  part  of  wax  and  5 
parts  of  resin,  and  after  melting  stir  in  i  part  of  burned  ochre  and  J^  part 
plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  a  good  cement  for  attaching  letters  to  windows. 
Apply  warm  to  heated  surfaces  where  possible. 

Cement  for  Glass  and  Metals.  The  following  cement  is  used 
extensively  for  fastening  brass  and  enamel  letters  to  show  windows:  Mix 
together  boiled  linseed  oil,  5  parts;  copal  varnish,  15  parts;  glue,  5  parts; 
and  oil  of  turpentine,  5  parts;  add  to  this  solution  10  parts  of  slaked  lime 
and  thoroughly  incorporated. 

Cement  for  Knife  and  Fork  Handles.  Melt  2  parts  of  pitch  and  stir 
in  I  part  of  sand  or  brick  dust;  fill  the  cavity  in  the  handle  with  the 
mixture,  and  push  in  the  previously  heated  tang. 


Cements.  60 

Cement  for  Paper  and  Metals.  Dissolve  dextrine  in  water,  adding 
20  parts  of  glycerine  and  10  parts  of  glucose.  Coat  the  paper  with  this 
mixture,  and,  after  rubbing  the  metal  with  a  piece  of  onion,  attach  the 
paper. 

Engravers'  Cement.  Resin,  i  part;  brick  dust,  i  part;  mix  with 
heat. 

Fireproof  Cement.  A  verj  tenacious  and  fireproof  cement  for  metals 
is  said  tc  be  made  by  mixing  pulverized  asbestos  with  waterglass,  to  be 
had  in  any  drug  store ;  it  is  said  to  be  steam  tight,  and  resist  any  tern- 
perature. 

Glass  and  Metal  Cement.  Brass  letters,  and  other  articles  of  a  like 
nature,  maybe  securely  fastened  on  glass  windows  with  the  following: 
Litharge.  2  parts;  white  lead,  i  part;  boiled  linseed  oil,  3  parts;  gum 
copal,  I  part.  Mix  just  before  using;  this  forms  a  quickly  drying  and 
secure  cement 

Gold  and  Silver  Colored  Cement.  For  filling  hollow  gold  and  silver 
articles.  Consists  of  60  parts  shellac,  10  parts  Venetian  turpentine,  and 
3  parts  gold  bronze  or  silver  bronze,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  shellac  is 
melted  first,  the  turpentine  is  then  added,  and  finally,  with  constant 
stirring  the  gold  or  silver  bronze. 

Jewelers'  Cement.  Put  in  a  bottle  2  ounces  of  isinglass  and  i  ounce 
of  the  best  gum  Arabic,  cover  them  with  proof  spirits,  cork  loosely  and 
place  the  bottle  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  boil  it  until  a  thorough  solution 
is  effected ;  then  strain  for  use. 

Metal  Cement.  Take  plaster  of  r  aris,  and  mix  it  to  proper  thickness 
by  using  water  containing  about  one-fourth  of  gum  A  rabic.  This  cement 
is  excellent  for  metal  exposed  to  contact  with  alcohol,  and  for  cementing 
metal  to  glass. 

Strong  Cement.  Mix  some  finely  powdered  rice  with  cold  water,  so 
rfs  to  forma  soft  paste.  Add  boiling  water,  and  finally  boil  the  mixture 
In  a  pan  for  one  or  two  minutes.  A  strong  cement  is  thus  obtained,  of  a 
white  color,  which  can  be  used  for  many  purposes. 

Transparent  Cement.  A  good  transparent  cement  for  fastening 
watch  glasses,  etc.,  in  bezels  or  settings,  is  made  by  dissolving  7  parts  of 
fure  gum  Arabic  and  3  parts  crystalized  sugar  in  distilled  'water;  the 
bottle  containing  the  mixture  should  be  placed  in  a  utensil  of  hot  water 
until  the  mixture  assumes  the  consistency  of  syrup,  and  then  left  well 
corked  for  use. 


61  Cement  Brasses. 

Watchmakers'  Cement  or  Wax.  Eight  ounces  of  gum  shellac, 
heated  and  thoroughly  incorporated  with  one-half  ounce  of  ultramarine, 
makes  the  strongest  and  best  wax  for  use  on  cement  brasses  and  chucks. 

CEMENT  BRASSES.  Attachments  to  a  lathe  to  which  work  is 
fixed  by  means  of  cement.  These  brasses  are  made  in  various  shapes  and 
sizes  hy  tool  manufacturers,  or  the  ingenious  watchmaker  can  make  them 
for  himself  during  his  leisure  hours.  Figs.  53  and  54.  The  watchmaker 
should  have  a  supply  of  these  brasses,  varying  in  sizes  from  one  inch  to 
the  smallest  size  necessary.  Should  you  have  a  watch 
that  has  a  broken  cock  or  foot  jewel,  and  among  your 
supply  you  are  unable  to  find  one  that  fits  both  the 
pivot  and  the  recess  in  the  cock  or  potence,  you  will 
Fig.  53.  find  these  brasses  very  useful.      If  you  find  a  jewel 

that  fits  the  pivot  nicely,  and  the  brass  setting  is  too  large,  select  a  cement 
brass  that  is  just  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  recess  in  the  potance,  cement 
the  jewel  to  the  end  of  the  brass,  with  the  flat  side  of  the  jewel  to  the 
brass,  so  that  if  the  brass  setting  of  the  jewel 
is  too  thick  it  can  be  turned  to  exact  thickness 
of  the  old  setting  at  the  same  time  that  the 
diameter  is  turned.     Bring  to  an  exact  center  ^^0'  5*- 

by  the  hole  in  the  jewel,  by  means  of  a  pegwood,  and  as  soon  as  the 
cement  is  hard,  turn  down  with  a  sharp  graver.  With  a  full  set  of  these 
brasses  a  watchmaker  can  utilize  odds  and  ends,  without  waiting  to  send 
for  new  jewels.  The  above  is  only  one  of  many  uses  to  which  these 
brasses  may  be  brought. 

CENTERS.  Pins  used  in  conjunction  with  a  lathe  for  holding  .work 
while  rerolving.  They  are  usually  made  of  steel.  They  are  of  two 
forms,  known  as  male  and  female  centers. 

Female  Centers.  These  very  useful  adjuncts  to  a  lathe  are  easily 
made  by  any  watchmaker.  He  should  have  at  least  six  pairs,  the  largest 
being  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  which  will  accommodate  as  large 
a  piece  as  you  will  wish  to  handle  on  your  watch  lathe,  viz:  winding  ar- 
bors for  clocks.  These  female  centers  are  made  from  steel  tapers,  the 
same  as  male  centers  are  made,  but  instead  of  turning  the  end  to  a  sharp 
point  they  are  countersunk.  Fig.  55.  First  place  the  taper  in  a  chuck  and 
turn  off  the  outside  and  end  true;  drill  a  small  hole  in  the  center  of  the 
taper,  while  the  lathe  is  running,  and  deep  enough  so  the  countersink  will 
not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  or  one-eighth  of  an  inch  deeper  than  the 
counter-sink.  Harden  the  end  only,  and  after  tempering  polish  oS  the 
bluing.  After  you  have  made  all  the  sizes  you  require,  test  all  of  them 
in  your  lathe  to  make  sure  they  did  not  get  out  of  true  in  tempering. 


Centering  Attachment.  63 

These  female  centers  are  very  useful  for  holding  or  suspending  any 
article  in  the  lathe  that  is  too  large  to  be  held  in  the  split  chucks.  Pivots 
of  clocks  can  be  turned  and  polished  very  quickly  and  accurately  in  these 
centers. 

Almost  any  kind  of  large  work  can  be  done  on  a  medium  sized  watch- 
maker's lathe  by  fitting  a  face  plate  to  the   lathe,   say  one  and   three- 
fourths  inches  in  diameter,  with  four  slots, 
and  fitted  to  a  chuck  with  a  taper  hole  to 
receive   both    male   and    female   centers. 
^'^'  ^^'  The  taper  hole  being  standard,  the  centers 

are  interchangeable,  and  with  two  styles  of  dogs,  almost  any  kind  of 
large  clock  work  can  readily  be  handled. 

These  centers  prove  very  useful  for  many  odd  jobs.  As  an  example: 
It  is  a  very  common  occurrence  to  hear  an  American  clock  beat  irregu- 
larly, caused  by  the  'scape  being  out  of  round.  Select  a  pair  of  female 
centers  that  will  admit  the  ends  of  the  pivots  of  the  'scape  wheel  snugly; 
place  one  center  in  the  taper  chuck  and  the  other  in  the  tail  stock  spindle, 
and  suspend  the  'scape  pinion  in  these  centers;  fasten  on  a  dog,  run  the 
lathe  at  a  high  speed  and  hold  a  fine,  sharp  file  so  it  will  touch  the  teeth 
of  the  'scape  wheel  slightly,  and  in  a  moment  the  wheel  will  be  perfectly 
round,  after  which  sharpen  up  the  teeth  that  are  too  thick. 

Male  Centers.  Conically  pointed  pins;  the  opposite  of  female  cen- 
ters. 

CENTERING  ATTACHMENT.  The  Potter  patent  self-center- 
ing lathe  attachment,  shown  in  Fig.  56,  will  be  found  useful  in  rapidly 
bringing  work  to  an  accurate  center,  when  pivoting,  staffing,  etc. 

The  attachment,  which  may  be  fitted  to  any  make  of  American  lathe, 
consists  primarily  of  the  side  bed  pieces  R  and  D,  the  upright  plate  A, 
and  the  reversible  anti-friction  sliding  jaws  000.  The  upright  plate  A 
is  attached  to  the  slide  D  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be  readily  raised  or 
lowered  or  adjusted  in  any  other  direction  at  pleasure;  and  may  be  set 
with  either  side  facing  the  lathe  head.  Of  the  reversible  sliding  jaws 
000,  which  are  made  of  Phosphor  Bronze  Anti-Friction  Metal,  not  re- 
quiring the  use  of  oil,  four  sets  of  three  in  a  set,  are  furnished  with  each 
attachment.  These  are  of  different  form,  as  shown  at  A'  V  O  U,  to 
adapt  them  to  the  various  kinds  of  watch  work,  and  are  operated  In 
radial  grooves  in  the  upright  plate  A,  by  means  of  the  rotating  lever  Z., 
which  moves  the  three  jaws  in  and  out,  to  and  from  the  center,  or  opens 
and  closes  them  in  perfect  unison.  One  set  of  jaws  may  be  withdrawn 
and  another  set  substituted  therefor  in  a  few  moments.  With  each 
change  of  the  jaws,  however,  the  plate  .^requires  readjustment;  but 
this,  too,  may  be  done  in  a  few  moments,  as  follows:  Having  previously 
provided  yourself  with  a  bit  of  straight  wire  or  small  steel  rod,  turned  to 


63 


Centering  Indicator. 


run  perfectly  true  in  your  lathe,  and  having  fastened  this  in  the  chuck 
in  your  lathe,  loosen  the  nuts  C  C  so  as  to  give  freedom  of  movement 
to  the  plate  A ;  then  bring  the  attachment  to  proper  position  on  the  lathe 

bed  and  fasten  it  there;  after 
which  move  the  sliding  jaws  in- 
ward until  they  bind  lightly  on 
the  bit  of  straight  wire  held  in 
your  chuck,  and  in  this  position 
again  tighten  the  nuts  C  C. 
Once  adjusted  to  accurate  center 
in  this  way  no  further  adjust- 
ment, whatever  the  size  of  work 
to  be  operated  upon,  is  required, 
until  another  change  of  jaws. 

In  use,  the  end  of  the  work  to 
be  operated  upon  is  placed  in  an 
accurate  split  chuck  in  the  lathe 
and  the  chuck  tightened  on  it  just 
sufficiently  to  hold  it  in  place  and 
to  rotate  it,  the  other  end  being 
supported  in  the  centered  bear- 
ing formed  by  the  jaws  ooo.  In 
^id-  •'>^-  this   position  the  jaws  o  o  o,  or 

such  others  as  for  the  time  may  be  in  use,  may  be  opened  and  closed 
as  often  as  desired,  and  each  time  will  instantly  bring  the  work  again 
to  accurate  center.    See  Itesf. 


CENTERING  INDICATOR.  In  centering  quickly  on  the  universal 
head,  this  tool  is  indispensible.  It  will  also  be  found  valuable  for  other 
work.  It  is  not  kept  by  dealers,  and  will  have  to  be  made  by  the  watch- 
maker.    The  bodv  of  the  indica- 

c 


tor  is  made  of  sheet  brass,  and 

should  be  about  five  inches  long 

by  two  inches  in  width  at   the 

larger  end.      The  shank   C,   is 

made  to  fit  in  rest  holder,  and  is 

either  riveted  or  soldered  to  the 

body ;  R  is  steel  or  copper  wire 

sharpened  to  a  fine   point,  and 

balances  on  a  pivot  at  i ;  ^  is  a 

clock  hand  pivoted  to  the  body  jr/g.  57. 

at  I ;  2  and  2  are  pivot  joints  only,  and  do  not  go  through  the  body ;  fig.  C 

will  perhaps  give  a  better  idea  of  the  end  /?.     To  center  with  this  tool, 

unscrew  your  rest  and  remove  it,  then  place  the  shaft  C,  fig.  57,  in  rest 

holder  and  adjust  it  till  the  needle  point  /?  touches  the  top  of  hole  as 


Centering  Tool.  64 

shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  index  hand  will  then  note  the  variations  as  the 
head  revolves.  If  too  low,  the  hand  will  point  above  center  and  if 
high,  vice  versa. 

CENTERING  TOOL.  A  small,  steel  point  used  for  accurately 
locating  centers.  Fig.  58  illustrates  the  O.  K.  centering  tool,  which  is 
made  to  fit  any  tailstock  spindle  or  taper  chuck.  This  tool  is  inserted 
in  the  tailstock  spindle  and  the  work  to  be  centered  is  placed  in  a 


Fig.  68. 

chuck  or  is  cemented  up. on  a  cement  plate.  The  work  is  now  rotated 
and  the  tailstock  advanced  and  the  tool  will  cut  an  exact  center,  pro- 
viding the  work  in  the  headstock  is  central.  This  tool  will  be  found 
useful  in  determining  centers  when  pivoting  staffs  and  in  drilling 
generally. 

CENTER  PUNCH.     A  punch  having  a  sharp  point,  for  marking 


Fig.  59. 

the  center  of  work  swung  in  a  lathe,  so  that  it  may  readily  be  removed 
and  replaced  without  the  trouble  of  finding  the  center  each  time. 

CENTER  OF  GRAVITY.  That  point  of  a  body  about  which  all 
its  parts  are  balanced,  or  which,  being  supported,  the  whole  body 
will  remain  at  rest,  though  acted  upon  by  gravity.     Webster, 

CENTER  OF  GYRATION.  That  point  in  a  body  rotating  around 
an  axis,  at  which,  if  a  given  force  were  applied,  it  would  produce  the 
same  angular  velocity  in  a  given  time  as  it  would  if  the  whole  mass 
of  the  body  were  collected  at  that  point.     Websler. 

CENTER  OF  MOTION.  That  point  which  remains  at  rest  while 
all  the  other  parts  of  a  body  revolve  around  it. 

CENTER  OF  OSCILLATION.  That  point  at  which,  if  the  whole 
matter  of  a  suspended  body  were  collected,  the  time  of  oscillation  would 
be  the  same.  In  a  long  cone  suspended  from  its  apex,  the  center  of 
oscillation  is  at  four-fifths  of  its  length  from  the  apex,  and  in  a  bar 
suspended  from  one  end  is  at  two-thirds  of  its  length.    A  pendulum 


65  Center  of  Oscillation. 

being  irregular  in  form  it  is  difficult  to  calculate  its  center  of  oscillation^ 
but  it  always  Is  situated  below  its  center  of  gravity.  The  following 
explanation  may  aid  the  student  in  locating  the  center  of  oscillation: 

All  know  that  a  simple  theoretical  pendulum  is  one  where  the  whole 
weight  is  centered  in  one  point,  suspended  from,  and  oscillating  about, 
a  fixed  point,  or  center  of  suspension.  A  sphere  of  platinum,  suspended 
by  a  fibre  of  silk,  would  probably  be  the  nearest  approximation  to  a  per- 
fectly simple  pendulum.  A  compound  pendulum  is  one  where  the 
weight  is  not  centered  in  or  about  one  point,  but  is  extended  for  some 
distance  up  and  down  the  rod.  Suppose  there  are  fixed  upon  the  fibre, 
at  equal  distances,  three  platinum  balls.  From  the  well  known  fact  that 
a  short  pendulum  vibrates  quicker  than  a  long  one,  the  upper  or  short 
pendulum  will  endeavor  to  make  its  vibrations  in  the  short  time  due  to 
its  length  as  a  pendulum.  The  middle  ball  will  endeavor  to  make  its 
oscillations  in  the  time  its  length  of  support  demands,  and  the  lower  and 
longest  will  attempt  the  slow  and  regular  vibrations  of  the  long  pendu- 
lum. Suppose  that  these  three  balls,  representing  three  pendulums  of 
three  different  lengths,  be  drawn  aside  from  the  perpendicular  5°  and 
suddenly  released,  the  consequence  will  be  that  the  upper  one  will  have 
made  its  full  excursion  by  the  time  the  middle  one  has  descended  to  the 
perpendicular,  and  before  the  lower  one  has  arrived  there ;  the  momentum 
of  the  three  balls  bending  the  fibre  of  silk  into  such  a  curve  as  will  accom- 
modate the  tendencUs  of  the  three  balls. 

If  the  silk  fibre  be  replaced  by  an  inflexible  rod,  and  the  now  rigid  com- 
pound pendulum  be  drawn  aside  as  before,  the  upper  ball  will  endeavor 
to  hasten  forward  the  middle  one  to  its  own  speed,  and  the  middle  and 
upper  one  will  both  combine  to  hasten  the  lower  one.  So  also,  the  mid- 
dle one  will  retard  somewhat  the  rapidity  of  the  upper  one,  and  the  slow- 
moving  lower  one  will  do  its  best  to  restrain  the  haste  of  both  those  above 
it,  and  the  consequence  of  all  these  tendencies  will  be  that  the  lower  one 
will  be  somewhat  accelerated,  and  the  upper  one  proportionally  retarded ; 
the  whole  assuming  a  vibration  which  is  the  mean  (middle  ball)  of  the 
two  extremes,  provided  the  three  masses  are  equal,  thus  compelling  the 
whole  to  oscillate  as  a  pendulum  whose  length  is  that  of  the  middle  ball. 
But  if  the  lower  ball  be  the  largest,  its  control  over  those  parts  above  it 
will  be  in  proportion  to  its  mass  and  the  time  of  its  vibrations  will  nearly 
coincide  with  those  made  by  its  center  of  gravity. 

Suppose,  again,  the  largest  am.ount  of  matter  to  be  in  the  upper  ball, 
then  will  its  influence  be  more  potent  toward  forcing  the  lower  and 
longer  pendulums  to  accommodate  their  rate  to  that  of  the  upper  one, 
and  their  vibrations  will  be  thereby  increased  to  a  degree  which  will  ap- 
proximate the  normal  vibrations  of  that  short  pendulum.  Thus  you  see 
the  difficulty  of  exactly  fixing  upon  the  exact  length  of  any  compound 
pendulum  by  simple  computation.  Every  particle  of  matter  from  the 
top  of  the  rod  to  the  lower  extremity,  which  differs  in  its  distance  from 


Centering  Seconds.  66 

the  point  of  suspension,  has  its  own  time  for  making  an  oscillation 
about  that  point;  and  the  greater  the  number  of  particles  that  have  an 
equal  distance  from  that  point,  the  greater  influence  they  possess  in  de- 
termining  the  time  of  vibration;  in  this  case,  as  in  republics,  the  mass 
rules.  To  obviate  these  counteracting  influences  that  are  constantly  at 
work  in  the  oscillations  of  the  compound  pendulum,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  concentrate,  as  far  as  possible,  all  the  matter  of  the  pendulum  at 
such  a  distance  from  the  point  of  suspension  as  will  produce  the  number 
of  vibrations  desired,  and  this  center  of  oscillation  will  always  fall  in  a 
line  produced  through  the  center  of  gravity  and  the  point  of  suspension, 
and  will  always  be  below  the  center  of  gravity. 

The  center  of  oscillation  and  suspension  are  convertible  points;  that 
is,  a  pendulum  inverted  and  suspended  from  the  center  of  oscillation  will 
vibrate  in  the  same  time.  Huygens,  the  Dutch  scientist,  discovered  this 
remarkable  fact,  and  it  affords  a  ready  means  of  determining  experi- 
mentally the  length  of  a  compound  pendulum,  which  may  be  measured 
by  means  of  a  platinum  or  lead  ball,  suspended  by  a  fibre  of  silk  from 
the  same  point,  and  in  front  of  the  pendulum  to  be  measured,  and  of 
such  a  length  that  the  vibrations  will  perfectly  coincide  in  time.  The 
distance  from  the  point  of  suspension  to  the  center  of  the  ball  (which  is 
also  the  center  of  oscillation)  is  nearly  the  length  of  that  compound  pen- 
dulum. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  center  of  oscillation  is  the  point  to  be 
affected  in  all  compensations  for  temperature.  The  difficulty  in  produc- 
ing a  perfect  compensation  pendulum  is  to  harmonize  and  bring  into 
coincidence  the  antagonistic  tendencies  of  the  center  of  gravity,  center 
of  oscillation  and  moment  of  inertia,  all  of  which  are  properties  and 
peculiarities  of  compound  pendulums,  and  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion by  those  who  are  experimenting  upon  them  with  the  expectation  of 
producing  any  arrangement  in  advance  of  those  in  use  at  present. 

CENTER  SECONDS.     See  Sweep  Seconds. 

CENTER  WHEEL.  The  wheel  whose  staff  carries  the  minute 
hand. 

CENTER  STAFF.  The  arbor,  attached  to  the  center  wheel,  which 
carries  the  minute  hand. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE.  The  tendency  that  revolving  bodies 
have  to  fly  from  the  center.  It  is  said  that  when  balances  are  made 
too  thin  in  the  rim,  they  alter  in  diameter  from  this  cause,  in  the  long 
and  short  vibrations. 

CHAIN  HOOK.  A  small  book  which  is  attached  to  each  end  of 
a  fuzee  chain,  to  fasten  the  chain  to  the  barrel  and  fuzee. 


67  Chalk. 

CHALK.  To  prepare  chalk  for  use  for  cleaning  gilding,  etc.,  pul- 
verize it  thoroughly  and  then  mix  it  with  clean  water,  in  proportion  of 
two  pounds  to  the  gallon.  Stir  well  and  then  let  it  stand  about  two 
minutes.  In  this  time  the  gritty  matter  will  have  settled  to  the  bot- 
tom. Slowly  pour  the  water  into  another  vessel,  so  as  not  to  stir  up 
the  sediment.  Let  stand  until  entirely  settled,  and  then  pour  oEE  as 
before.  The  settlings  will  be  prepared  chalk,  ready  for  use  as  soon 
as  dried.  Spanish  whiting,  treated  in  the  same  way,  makes  a  very 
good  cleaning  or  polishing  powder.  Some  watchmakers  add  a  little 
crocus;  it  gives  the  powder  a  nice  color  at  least. 

CHAMFER.  To  groove.  To  cut  a  channel  in.  To  cut  or  grind 
in  a  sloping  manner  anything  originally  right-angled.    To  bevel. 

CHAMFERING  TOOL.  A  tool  for  cutting  a  bevel  or  chamfer. 
A  tool  for  cutting  a  furrow  or  channel  is  also  known  as  §.  chamfering 
tool. 

CHAMOIS.  A  soft  leather  used  by  watchmakers  and  jewelers, 
and  so  called  because  first  prepared  from  the  skin  of  a  species  of 
antelope  known  as  chamois. 

Chamois,  to  Clean.  A  chamois  leather  should  never  be  thrown 
away  because  it  is  dirty.  It  can  easily  be  cleaned  and  is  then  better 
than  a  new  one.  Prepare  a  solution  of  warm  water  with  a  little  soda 
in  it.  Wet  the  leather  in  this  and  rub  it  thoroughly  with  soap  and 
leave  it  to  soak  for  several  hours,  after  which  rub  it  vigorously  until 
it  is  quite  clean.  Prepare  a  new  solution  of  warm  water,  a  little 
soda  and  some  soap  and  rub  the  skin  thoroughly  in  this  to  rinse  out 
the  dirt.  A  chamois  skin  must  never  be  rinsed  in  water  only,  or  it 
will  come  out  harsh  and  dry.  The  soap  in  the  water  leaves  the  skin 
soft  and  pliable.  Ivory  soap  will  be  found  particularly  desirable  in 
this  respect.as  it  is  rich  in  fat  and  has  but  little  rosin  and  no  surplus 
of  lye.  After  thoroughly  rinsing,  wrap  the  skin  up  in  a  towel  and 
wring  it  until  dry  and  then  work  it  thoroughly  in  the  hands  until  it  is 
dry  and  pliable  and  you  will  have  a  leather  which  is  superior  to  a 
new  one. 

CHARIOT.  A  small  brass  plate,  recessed  into  the  under  side  of 
the  pillar  plate  of  a  cylinder  watch,  and  which  carries  at  one  end  the 
balance  cock,  while  at  the  other  end  the  lower  balance  jewel  is 
mounted.  By  loosening  the  screw  which  holds  the  plate  in  place,  the 
depthing  between  the  'scape  wheel  and  cylinder  may  be  altered  and 
still  keep  the  balance  upright. 


Chimes.  68 

CHIMES.  A  set  of  bells  musically  tuned  to  one  another  and  some, 
times  attached  to  tower  clocks,  especially  in  Europe,  such  clocks  being 
known  as  quarter  clocks,  or  chiming  clocks. 

CHIMING  BARREL.  The  cylinder  in  a  chiming  clock  which 
raises  the  hammer  in  the  chiming  train,  by  means  of  projections  upon  its 
surface. 

CHOPS.  Two  metal  plates  which  bind  the  ends  of  the  pendulu.n 
suspension  spring. 

CHRONOGRAPH.  A  recording  time  piece.  In  modern  usage  the 
term  is  applied  to  watches  having  a  center  seconds  hand  (driven  from  the 
fourth  wheel),  which  generally  beats  fifths  of  a  second.  The  hand  is 
started,  stopped  or  caused  to  fly  back  by  manipulating  a  push  on  the  side 
of  the  case. 


CHRONOMETER. 


A  portable  time  piece  of  superior  construction, 
with  heavy  compensation  balance,  and  usually 
beating  half  seconds;  intended  for  keeping 
very  accurate  time  for  astronomers,  watch- 
makers, etc.     See  Fig.  60. 

Marine  Chronometer.  A  chronometer 
hung  in  gimbals,  for  use  at  sea  in  determining 
longitude. 


Pocket   Chronometer.      A   pocket  watch 
with   chronometer  escapement. 

Fig.  GO. 

CHRONOMETER  ESCAPEMENT.  A  form  of  escapement  in 
which  the  impulse  is  given  direct  from  the  escape  wheel  to  the 
impulse  roller  on  the  balance  staff,  the  locking  being  accomplished 
on  a  separate  piece  known  as  the  detent,  from  which  it  is  sometimes 
called  detent  escapement.  The  detent  is  made  of  two  principal 
forms  which  constitute  the  two  varieties  of  this  escapement.  The  one 
shown  in  Fig.  61  is  the  pivoted  detent  which  is  sometimes  termed  the 
bascule  escapement  by  foreign  makers,  while  Fig.  62  shows  the  spring 
detent.  This  escapement  appears  to  have  been  invented  by  Pierre 
LeRoy,  in  the  year  1766.  In  the  earliest  forms  the  unlocking,  or  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  the  gold  spring,  was  mounted  upon  the  balance 
staff,  but  was  subsequently  transferred  to  the  detent,  similar  to  the 
present  form,  also  the  escape  wheel  was  sometimes  made  with  two 
Bets  of  teeth  similar  to  the  one  used  in  the  duplex.     From  its  first 


69  Chronometer  Escapement. 


Fig.  61. 


Chronometer  Escapement.  70 

inception  up  to  the  present  time  it  has  passed  through  many  forms 
and  modifications,  until  it  has  finally  arrived  at  a  stage  where  it 
approaches  perfection  very  closely  when  made  by  the  best  makers. 


Fig.  62. 

When  well  made  this  form  of  escapement  leaves  but  little  to  be 
desired  for  timekeeping;  but  while  its  action  is  simple,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principles  underlying  its  construction  must  be  correctly 
applied,  as  well  as  that  the  workmanship  be  of  the  highest  quality. 

Action  of  the  Escapement.  In  Fig.  6i  the  tooth  c  is  at  rest  upon 
the  locking  stone  d.  The  dotted  circle  e  represents  the  unlocking 
roller  which  is  mounted  upon  the  balance  staff  beneath  the  impulse 
roller  k.  The  unlocking  spring  g  is  rigidly  held  at  the  back  end  by 
a  screw,  while  the  end  next  to  the  balance  is  free  to  move  towards 
the  escape  wheel,  but  when  pressed  in  the  opposite  direction  it  will 
carry  the  detent  with  it  by  striking  against  the  horn  of  the  detent  A, 
thus  accomplishing  the  unlocking  of  the  escape  wheel  for  the  suc- 
ceeding impulse.  Upon  the  detent  arbor  there  is  mounted  a  small 
spiral  spring,  not  shown,  of  the  same  form  as  the  balance  spring  only 
very  much  smaller  and  having  four  or  five  coils  for  the  purpose  of 
returning  the  detent  to  the  locking  position.  This  spring  is  mounted 
by  means  of  a  collet  and  is  held  by  a  stud  similar  to  the  balance 
spring.  As  shown  the  unlocking  pallet  is  in  position  ready  to  unlock 
the  escape  wheel,  thus  allov/ing  the  tooth  z  to  fall  upon  the  impulse 
pallet  /,  which  imparts  the  impulse  to  the  balance  through  the 
impulse  roller  k,  which  is  mounted  upon  the  balance  staff  in  a  similar 
manner  to  that  of  the  roller  in  a  lever  escapement.  Having  received 
an  impulse  the  balance  continues  its  excursion  around  to  the  left, 
until  the  momentum  of  the  balance  has  been  absorbed  by  the  balance 
spring.  The  balance  is  immediately  started  upon  its  return  vibra- 
tion by  the  tension  of  the  balance  spring  produced  by  the  impulse 
and  the  momentum  of  the  balance.  The  unlocking  pallet  in  return- 
ing strikes  upon  the  back  of  the  unlocking 
ffiffi^  spring,  but  as  it  is  free  to  bend  in  this  direc- 
tion no  other  action  takes  place. 

When  the  balance  returns  again  the  un- 
locking pallet  strikes  against  the  unlocking 
spring,  which  is  resting  against  the  horn  of 
the  detent,  thus  unlocking  the  escape  wheel, 
ready  to  deliver  another  impulse".     There 
is  a  banking  screw  in  the  marine  chronometer,  shown  in  Fig.  63, 
against  which  the  detent  strikes  and  the  amount  of  lock  is  adjusted. 
This  screw  is  usually  located  about  the  center  of  the  locking  stone. 


¥ 


71  Chroaometer  Escapement. 

but  in  all  cases  it  should  be  located  at  the  point  where  the  detent  will 
come  to  rest  with  the  least  jar  or  trembling,  which  would  be  very 
detrimental  to  accurate  timing.  The  escape  wheel  makes  a  revolu- 
tion in  the  same  time  as  that  of  the  lever  escapement,  because  each 
tooth  delivers  but  one  impulse,  and  the  entire  space  between  two 
teeth  passes  every  time  the  detent  is  unlocked,  while  in  the  lever 
each  tooth  gives  two  impulses.  While  the  balance  in  this  escape- 
ment is  more  nearly  free  from  errors  of  the  train  which  makes  it  so 
accurate  as  a  timepiece,  it  is  nevertheless  at  the  same  time  very  sen- 
sitive to  external  shocks,  and  for  this  reason  is  not  suitable  for  carry- 
ing in  the  pocket  except  in  rare  cases  when  carried  by  a  careful  per- 
son. Another  reason  why  it  is  not  suitable  for  ordinary  wear  is  its 
liability  to  set,  that  is  the  motion  of  the  balance  is  counteracted  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  which  may  be  sufficient  to  entirely  stop  the 
watch,  and  as  this  escapement  has  no  power  to  start  itself,  even  m 
the  highest  grades,  the  watch  would  stand  still  until  again  started. 
The  escapement  shown  in  Fig.  6i  is  taken  from  one  of  Jules  Jurgen- 
sen's  pocket  chronometers,  and  in  the  drawing  is  shown  enlarged  ten 
times.  These  measurements  were  very  carefully  taken  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  drawing,  so  that  it  may  act  as  a  reliable  guide  to  those 
who  may  wish  to  construct  one. 

The  Escape  Wheel.    The  wheel  is  made  of  brass  or  gold,  which 

should  be  well  hammered  to  harden  it  and  give  it  rigidity,  which  is 
very  essential,  as  it  must  be  left  as  light  as  possible.  The  teeth  are 
cut  by  a  cutter  whose  cutting  edge  conforms  to  the  circle  of  the 
wheel  and  the  back  of  the  teeth  are  cut  by  a  cutter  of  suitable  form. 
After  the  teeth  are  cut  a  hole  is  bored  through  a  plate,  which  may  be 
of  steel  and  then  hardened,  which  corresponds  to  the  inner  circle  of 
the  rim  of  the  wheel  and  concentric  with  this  a  recess  is  turned  out 
into  which  the  escape  wheel  will  just  enter  freely. 

The  arms  of  the  wheel  are  to  be  carefully  worked  out  by  hand, 
using  small  files  and  working  carefully  so  as  not  to  distort  the  metal. 
The  greater  part  of  the  metal  between  the  arms  may  be  removed 
by  drilling  several  holes  which  will  expedite  the  work  somewhat. 
For  finishing  up  the  arms  a  guide  can  be  made  by  turning  a  disc  of 
steel  whose  outside  diameter  corresponds  to  that  of  the  escape  wheel, 
so  that  it  may  enter  the  same  recess,  and  then  cutting  almost  half  of 
it  away,  or  half  the  width  the  arm  is  to  be  over  half  the  diameter, 
also  leaving  a  portion  remaining,  which  will  correspond  to  the  hub  of 
the  wheel.  If  the  piece  before  mentioned  was  made  of  steel  and 
hardened  it  will  act  as  a  guide  for  forming  the  inner  circle  of  the 
rim.  After  the  arms  are  cut  out  and  nicely  smoothed  the  wheel  ■ 
may  be  cemented  into  an  accurately  fitted  recess  turned  into  a  cement 
brass  and  the  arms  thinned  down  to  about  half  the  thickness  the  rest 


Chronometer  Escapement.  ti 

of  the  wheel  is  by  turning  oiit  with  the  sh'de  rest  or  other  suitable 
attachment,  using  a  very  keen  tool  which  will  leave  a  smooth  and 
polished  cut.  The  points  of  the  teeth  should  not  be  left  sharp,  but 
should  be  imperceptibly  rounded.  Sometimes  the  recessing  is 
carried  out  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  teeth,  leaving  a  sharp  angle,  and 
in  others  it  is  carried  to  the  points  of  the  teeth  in  a  gentle  curve, 
beginning  at  their  base.  This  latter  form  makes  the  lightest  wheel, 
but  is  somewhat  more  difficult  to  make  and  does  not  look  quite  so 
nice  as  the  first  form,  as  the  flat  top  of  the  rim  and  teeth  may  be 
highly  polished  upon  an  agate  polishing  stone,  such  as  is  used  to 
polish  jewel  settings,  etc.  The  cutters  used  for  cutting  the  teeth 
should  leave  a  smooth,  polished  cut,  as  the  teeth  should  not  be 
changed  from  what  the  cutter  left  them. 

The  Detent.  The  counterpoise  of  the  pivoted  detent  afifords  a 
ready  means  of  poising  it,  so  that  the  question  of  a  long  or  short 
detent  has  not  the  same  importance  as  it  has  in  the  spring  detent. 
In  the  spring  detent  the  spring  must  sustain  all  the  weight  of  the 
outer  end  so  that  it  is  advisable  with  this  form  to  make  it  as  short  as 
may  be  safely  done.  With  a  long  spring  detent,  of  course,  there  will 
be  more  metal  to  be  sustained  by  the  spring,  so  that  it  must  be  left 
thicker,  and  this  will  make  the  work  performed  by  the  balance  so 
much  the  greater,  which  is  a  detriment  when  held  in  such  a  position 
that  the  weight  of  the  detent  acts  to  increase  or  decrease  the  unlock- 
ing resistance. 

Saunier  in  his  Modern  Horology,  article  850  says:  "  In  the  case  of 
the  marine  chronometer  as  now  made,  it  has  been  experimentally 
ascertained  that  the  acting  length  of  the  spring  detent  should  not  be 
less  than  the  diameter  of  the  escape  wheel,  nor  more  than  the  radius 
of  the  balance.  A  pivoted  detent,  measured  from  the  center  of 
motion  to  the  extremity  of  the  auxiliary  spring,  should  be  much 
shorter  (by  rather  more  than  one-third  this  amount):  for  otherwise  its 
weight,  being  increased  by  that  of  the  counterpoise,  would  render 
the  action  of  the  escapement  uncertain,  especially  in  pocket 
chronometers  beating  18,000  or  21,600  vibrations  per  hour."  It  is 
difficult  to  see  the  logic  of  his  reasoning  regarding  the  pivoted  detent. 
The  only  hypothesis  on  which  his  reasoning  would  seem  to  apply 
would  be  where  the  counterpoise  was  added  merely  as  an  ornament, 
without  due  regard  to  the  poising  of  the  detent,  a  thing  which  is  very 
necessary,  in  this  respect  having  an  advantage  over  the  spring  detent. 
Making  a  new  or  replacing  a  broken  detent  is  about  one  of  the  most 
difficult  jobs  the  watchmaker  has  to  undertake,  especially  in  the 
latter  case,  when  its  location  and  proportions  are  already  determined. 
In  making  a  detent  it  will  result  beneficially  if  the  measurements  are 
made  directly  onto  a  steel  plate  sufficiently  large  that  all  the  various 


73  Chronometer  Escapement. 

proportions  may  be  made  directly  upon  it  rather  than  making  them 
on  a  separate  plate  and  then  transferring  them  to  the  piece  of  steel 
from  which  the  detent  is  to  be  made.  The  selection  of  the  steel  from 
which  the  detent  is  to  be  made  is  very  important,  as  it  must  be  made 
as  light  as  possible  and  yet  sufficiently  rigid  to  withstand  the  impact 
of  the  locking.  The  conditions  above  enumerated  can  only  be  satis- 
fied by  using  steel  of  a  very  superior  quality,  and  in  this  respect 
almost  any  steel  may  be  improved  by  carefully  hammering  it,  which 
will  make  it  more  dense.  Another  reason  for  using  a  plate  from 
which  to  make  the  detent  is  that  the  holes  maybe  drilled  more  accu- 
rately at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  detent.  When  all  the  points 
of  the  detent  are  located,  drill  all  the  holes  and  rough  it  approxi- 
mately and  harden,  drawing  it  to  a  spring  temper  of  dark  blue.  If  a 
lead  or  cyanide  bath  be  at  hand  for  heating,  only  ordinary  care  will 
be  required  in  hardening,  but  if  a  blow  pipe  is  used  great  care  will 
be  necessary  to  avoid  overheating,  which  would  ruin  it.  When 
replacing  a  broken  detent  the  centers  of  the  different  parts  should 
be  marked  upon  the  plate,  which  has  been  carefully  smoothed,  and 
by  mounting  the  impulse  pallet  upon  a  well  made  arbor  a  hole  is  to 
be  drilled  into  which  this  arbor  will  accurately  fit,  the  same  being 
done  with  the  escape  pinion.  By  this  method  the  face  of  the  locking 
stone  may  be  accurately  located.  In  the  spring  detent  the  corners 
where  the  spring  joins  the  body  of  the  detent  to  the  foot,  should  be 
left  slightly  rounded,  not  taking  special  care  to  have  them  extremely 
sharp,  which  would  make  them  liable  to  be  broken.  The  amount  of 
this  rounding  should  be  slight,  almost  an  imperceptible  amount  being 
quite  sufficient.  After  the  hardening  process  the  forming  may  be 
proceeded  with  by  using  a  fine  file,  which  should  be  new  and  sharp, 
that  the  metal  may  not  be  in  any  way  strained  or  injured,  finishing  off 
with  carborundum  powder,  and  a  tin  slip  if  to  be  left  unpolished,  or 
if  to  be  polished,  using  a  zinc  slip  and  diamantine.  Mr.  Britten  says 
"The  locking  pallet  should  not  be  perfectly  upright.  It  should  lean 
a  little  from  the  center  of  the  wheel,  and  a  little  towards  the  foot  of 
the  detent,  so  that  the  locking  takes  place  at  the  root  of  the  stone, 
and  then  the  action  of  locking  and  unlocking  does  not  tend  so  much 
to  buckle  the  detent.  The  face  of  the  impulse  pallet,  too,  should  be 
slightly  inclined  so  that  it  bears  on  the  upper  part  of  the  wheel  teeth. 
By  this  means  the  impulse  pallet  will  not  mark  the  wheel  in  the 
same  spot  as  the  locking  pallet." 

If  the  above  theory  be  true  why  is  it  necessary  to  go  to  such 
expense  and  care  that  each  part  be  accurately  made,  but  that  the 
above  reasoning  is  incorrect  we  cite  a  few  facts  below  and  endeavor 
to  show  why  the  locking  and  impulse  pallets  should  be  set  perfectly 
upright,  taking  extraordinary  care  that  they  be  so  set.  By  setting 
the  locking  stone  upright  there  can  be  no  tendency  to  buckle  the 


Chronometer  Escapement.  74 

detent,  for  the  pressure  will  come  equally  upon  the  top  and  bottom 
of  the  locking  pallet,  and  the  wear  being  distributed  equally  upon 
the  surfaces,  the  wear  will  not  be  so  great.  With  the  pivoted  detent 
the  locking  pallet  may  be  set  very  near  on  a  radial  line  so  that  it 
it  will  have  just  a  small  amount  of  draw,  as,  if  the  detent  be  accu- 
rately poised,  the*  force  of  the  locking  spring  will  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  escape  wheel  becoming  unlocked  at  the  wrong  time,  but 
with  the  spring  detent  a  perceptible  draw  is  necessary,  ten  degrees 
being  sufficient  when  well  constructed. 

The  Unlocking  Spring.  The  unlocking  spring  is  made  of  gold, 
hammer  hardened,  and  made  as  light  as  possible,  from  one  and  one- 
half  to  two-thousandths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  It  should  be  made 
longer  than  necessary,  then  cut  off  so  that  it  will  only  carry  the 
detent  out  sufficient  to  well  clear  the  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel  and 
should  point  directly  towards  the  center  of  the  balance. 

The  Rollers.  The  unlocking  and  impulse  rollers  are  made  of 
tempered  steel,  the  slots  for  the  pallets  being  cut  so  that  their  front 
faces  are  on  a  radial  line  to  their  center.  The  outer  end  of  the  im- 
pulse pallet  should  be  just  equal  to  the  roller,  while  in  the  unlocking 
roller  the  pallet  extends  beyond  the  edge  of  the  roller  so  as  to  strike 
the  unlocking  spring. 

The  Pallets.  Ruby  or  sapphire  are  the  only  stones  sufficiently 
hard  from  which  the  pallets  should  be  made.  The  impulse  and 
unlocking  stones  should  be  sloped  off  at  the  back,  while  the  locking 
one  is  brought  to  an  edge  as  indicated  at  d.  Fig.  6i,  so  that  it  may 
not  strike  the  back  of  the  tooth  when  returning  to  the  locking  posi- 
tion. The  half  of  the  locking  pallet  which  is  cut  away  is  filled  in  by 
a  half  round  brass  plug  cut  off  flush  with  the  detent  face.  The 
unlocking  and  impulse  pallets  are  carefully  fitted  to  the  slots  and 
held  in  place  by  shellac.  The  edges  of  all  the  pallets  should  be 
slightly  rounded  and  carefully  polished. 

Examining  the  Escapement.  Before  taking  the  watch  apart,  the 
several  actions  should  be  examined  and  any  fault  noted.  See  that 
the  balance  is  true,  both  in  the  round  and  flat;  also  notice  the  action 
of  the  balance  spring  and  that  it  develops  uniformly.  Try  the 
various  endshakes,  which  should  be  only  the  amount  necessary  for 
freedom.  If  the  sideshake  at  the  pivots  is  more  than  what  is  neces- 
sary for  freedom,  a  new  jewel  should  be  fitted  or  a  new  part  made, 
depending  upon  which  is  at  fault.  Stop  the  balance  and  notice  the 
location  of  the  impulse  and  unlocking  pallets.  When  at  rest  the 
unlocking  pallet  should  stand  near  the  unlocking  spring  with  the 
impulse  pallet  near  the  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel,  which  will  deliver 


75  Chroaometer  Escapement. 

the  next  succeeding  impulse,  but  the  position  of  none  of  them  should 
be  changed  until  the  watch  has  been  tested  for  isochronism  and  in 
the  various  positions,  since  they  may  have  been  thus  placed  to  com- 
plete some  of  the  adjustments.  Notice  the  amount  the  unlocking 
pallet  carries  the  detent  beyond  what  is  necessary  to  unlock  the 
tooth  and  at  the  same  time  see  that  the  incoming  tooth  strikes  safely 
upon  the  impulse  pallet;  also  the  distance  the  pallet  is  forward  of  the 
tooth  at  the  time  the  tooth  falls  upon  the  pallet.  The  extent  of  the 
drop  should  not  exceed  five  degrees,  and  may  sometimes  be  slightly 
less.  The  distance  between  the  edge  of  the  impulse  roller  and  the 
two  escape  teeth  immediately  adjoining  it,  that  is,  the  tooth  which 
has  just  given  the  impulse  and  the  one  which  will  immediately  follow 
it,  should  be  just  sufficient  to  leave  the  parts  free  and  should  be 
equally  divided  on  each  tooth.  If  the  lights,  as  they  are  called, 
are  not  equal,  it  shows  that  the  position  of  the  locking  stone  is 
not  correct  and  which  way  it  should  be  moved  to  correct  the 
fault.  Excessive  side-shake  at  the  pivots,  especially  at  the  bal- 
ance, might  cause  the  inequality  above  referred  to  when  held  in 
certain  positions.  The  escape  wheel  must  be  true  in  the  flat, 
noticing  that  none  of  the  teeth  are  faulty.  The  heights  of  the 
rollers  should  be  so  as  to  engage  the  escape  teeth  and  the  unlock- 
ing spring. 

The  amount  of  lock  of  the  tooth  upon  the  locking  pallet  should  be 
as  small  as  possible,  leaving  a  sufficient  margin  for  safety.  No 
workman  who  is  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with  this  escapement 
should  attempt  to  repair  it,  for,  since  none  except  a  first-rate  work- 
man could  expect  to  make  one  which  would  give  satisfactory  results, 
so,  none  but  a  workman  of  equal  skill  can  expect  to  repair  it  without 
leaving  it  in  an  imperfect  condition. 


"Munger's  Improved  Chronometer  Escapement.  In  this  escape- 
ment, which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  64,  the  detent  and  staff  are 
in  one  piece,  with  a  notch  in  the  head  to  hold  the  locking  jewel. 
The  detent  arm  has  a  hole  through  it  to  receive  the  detent  staff, 
fitting  friction  tight,  so  that  the  detent  and  arm  can  be  set  at  the 
proper  angle  to  each  other,  and  then  the  staff  driven  down  to  the 
shoulder.  These  should  not  fit  so  tightly  that  they  cannot  be  sep- 
arated without  danger  of  breaking,  but  so  firmly  as  not  to  be 
moved  out  of  proper  position  to  each  other  by  use  or  handling, 
etc.  Figure  64  shows  the  escapement  and  impulse  pallet  of  the 
usual  construction.  The  diameter  of  the  pallet  should  not  be 
less  than  six-tenths  (.6)  the  diameter  of  the  escapement,  or 
larger  than  two-thirds  the  size  of  the  wheel.  A  a  shows  the 
line  of  centers  of  the  escape  wheel  and  balance;    b  b  the  circle  oi 


Chronometer  Escapement. 


76 


depthing  of  the  escapement  and  detent  from  the  balance  holes;  c  c  extends 
from  the  intersection  of  the  periphery  of  the  wheel  with  the  line  a  a,  and 
the  point  of  the  third  tooth  of  the  wheel  across  the  circle  b  b.  At  the 
intersection  of  the  lines  b  b  and  c  c  is  the  point  of  location  of  the  detent 
pivots  (a  slight  variation  from  this  point  is  not  important).  The  discharge, 
or  unlocking  pallet,  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  is  a  light  bar  or  arm  with 
a  notch  at  one  end  to  hold  its  jewel,  and  is  the  same  length  or  diameter 
as  the  impulse  pallet  (or  nearly  so).  In  planting  the  escapement,  first 
mount  the  wheel  on  its  pinion  and  top  it  just  enough  to  have  it  round. 
Then  use  a  temporary  brass  or  steel  disc,  the  size  required  for  the  impulse 

pallet,  place  it  on  the 
balance  staff,  and  adjust 
the  depth  of  it  and  the 
wheel  in  the  depth  tool, 
and  mark  the  circle  b  b. 
Locate  the  escape  wheel 
and  detent  pivots  the  dis- 
tance apart  indicated  by 
the  drawing,  and  pivot 
them  in,  as  also  the  bal- 
ance, in  their  proper  posi- 
tions. In  the  brass  disc 
cut  a  notch  large  enough 
to  allow  the  escape-wheel 
tooth  to  pass  through  as  in 
escaping.  As  the  detent 
jewel  is  too  long  to  allow 
of  the  proper  locking  of 
the  wheel,  let  a  tooth  of 
Fig.  64*.  the  wheel  rest  on  the  lock- 

ing face  of  the  detent  (the  notch  in  the  disc  allows  this),  and  the  distance 
of  the  entrance  tooth  from  the  disc  readily  shows  about  how  much  of 'the 
detent  jewel  has  to  be  ground  off  before  beginning  to  polish  its  locking 
face.  Two  or  three  trials  will  bring  it  so  near  that  the  final  polishing 
will  make  the  locking  correct.  All  this  really  takes  but  a  few  minutes 
to  do. 

To  obtain  the  adjustment  of  the  detent  use  a  special  tool.  The  spindle 
is  hollow,  and  the  front  end  reamed  out  to  take  in  a  small  brass  taper 

*Fig.  1  represents  a  plan,  or  face  view,  of  the  escapement,  showing  the  method  of 
locating'  the  relative  positions  of  the  balance,  escape  wheel  and  detent  pivots. 

Fig.  2  is  an  elevation  of  the  detent,  detached  from  the  detent  arm. 

Fig.  3  is  a  plan  view  of  the  detent  arm  and  gold  spring  attached  to  it.  D,  eccentric 
banking  screw  to  adjust  the  position  of  the  detent  arm  and  depth  of  locking  the  escape 
wheel.  The  distance  of  the  detent  pivot  from  the  escape  wheel  can  be  determined  and 
laid  out  with  sufficient  accuracy  as  one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  the  distance  shown  in  the 
drawing'. 


77  Chronometer  Escapement. 

that  also  fits  a  chuck  in  your  lathe-spindle;  this  small  taper  is  drilled  out, 
with  as  large  a  hole  as  convenient,  from  the  back  end  to  within  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  front.  It  is  then  put  in  the  lathe-spindle  and 
the  front  end  turned  small  enough  to  be  out  of  the  way  of  the  lap, 
and  carefully  centered  and  drilled  through  into  the  large  hole,  and 
broached  out  just  enough  to  hold  the  detent  staff  firmly  by  friction,  while 
grinding  and  polishing  the  locking  surface ;  and  it  is  readily  removed 
from  the  taper  to  try  the  detent  for  the  correct  locking. 

In  making  this  adjustment,  the  arbor  carrying  the  polishing  lap  should 
be  held  firmly,  (by  means  of  a  loose  button  on  the  front  end  of  the  spin- 
dle) against  the  adjusting  screw  r,  and  this  screw  turned  a  little  at  a 
time,  as  the  length  of  the  detent  jewel  is  shortened,  so  that  the  locking 
face  will  be  a  true  circle  from  the  pivots ;  for  if  the  locking  corner  is 
much  rounded  off,  or  beveled,  the  pressure  of  the  wheel  against  it  would 
push  the  detent  out,  and  cause  it  to  trip  or  unlock  at  the  wrong  time.  If 
the  circle  is  true  from  the  pivots,  no  amount  of  pressure  of  the  wheel 
against  the  detent  can  push  it  out  or  release  it. 

With  the  size  of  discharge  pallet  used,  the  unlocking  action  can  begin, 
if  desired,  from  J^  to  ^  of  the  whole  motion  of  the  detent  arm  before 
the  line  of  centers,  and  is  adjusted  by  the  eccentric  banking  screw  d. 
The  relative  position  or  angle  of  the  detent  to  the  arm  is  then  so  adjusted 
as  to  give  the  right  amount  of  locking  to  the  escape  wheel,  (which  can 
be  very  shallow).  The  gold  spring  is  then  shortened,  so  that  it  will  be 
released  from  the  discharge  pallet  when  the  escape  wheel  tooth  and  im- 
pulse jewel  are  about  on  the  line  of  centers ;  if  the  gold  spring  is  too 
short,  the  detent  will  return  too  soon,  so  that  the  inside  face  of  the  lock- 
ing jewel  will  strike  the  point  of  the  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel,  and  the 
wheel  drag  along  the  face  of  the  jewel  until  the  detent  arm  rests  against 
the  banking  screw  d.     This  must  be  avoided. 

The  discharge  pallet,  of  course,  must  be  set  so  as  to  unlock  at  the  right 
position  of  the  impulse  pallet,  but  less  drop  is  required  in  this  escape- 
ment than  in  the  usual  construction. 

The  spiral  return  spring  on  the  detent  staff,  under  the  arm,  should 
have  tension  enough  to  return  the  detent  to  its  banking,  when  it  is 
moved  a  trifle,  with  all  the  pressure  on  it  from  the  train  that  the  main- 
spring can  give.  Use  five  or  six  coils  for  the  return  spring,  and  put  on 
the  spring  so  that  it  opens  when  the  detent  is  moved  to  unlock,  as  this 
gives  a  trifle  quicker  action  to  start  the  detent  on  its  return.  The  detent, 
all  complete,  is  so  very  light  that  there  is  no  recoil  as  it  strikes  the  bank- 
ing, and  no  jarring  or  outside  motion  will  cause  it  to  trip,  as  all  others 
are  liable  to  do. 

The  extreme  lightness  of  the  detent  with  its  locking  so  near  the  pivot, 
lessens  the  friction  so  greatly  that  the  discharge  pallet  can  be  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  impulse  pallet,  and  thus  greatly  lessen  the  angle  or 
extent  of  motion  required  to  start  it  going ;  and  it  also  admits  of  very 


Chronoscope. 


78 


shallow  locking,  without  the  least  danger  of  tripping,  and  requires  much 
less  strength  of  mainspring  than  any  other  detached  escapement. 

CHRONOSCOPE.  A  clock  or  watch  in  which  the  time  is  indicated 
by  the  presentation  of  numbers  through  holes  in  the  dial. 

CHUCK.  A  mechanical  contrivance  for  holding  work  in  a  lathe. 
True  chucks  are  the  most  important  adjuncts  to  a  watchmaker's  bench. 
A  good  lathe  and  untrue  chucks  will  result  in  inferior  work,  while  a 
cheap  lathe  with  true  chucks  will  permit  of  some  good  results.  Chucks 
hold  the  work  truest  that  come  the  nearest  fitting  the  hole  in  them.  Trying 
to  hold  work  too  large  or  too  small,  will  soon  get  them  out  of  true,  and 
often  make  the  workman  dissatisfied  with  his  chucks,  his  work,  himself 

and  his  lathe.  Wax  is  the  only  sure  thing 
for  fine  staff  and  pivot  work,  although 
there  are  many  substitutes  that  do  very 
well,  and  with  the  aid  of  them  a  good 
Fig,  65.  workman  can  turn   out  a   very   fine  job. 

With  a  good  lathe,  true  chucks  and  sizes  to  suit,  and  a  reasonable 
amount  of  practice,  first  class  work  can  be  done  with  split  chucks.  One 
chuck  or  tool  of  any  kind  seldom  does  all  kinds  of  work  and  does  it  well. 
Fig.  65  is  a  good  example  of  the  modern  split  wire  chuck,  such  as  is 
furnished  to  go  with  all  American  made  lathes. 

The  table  of  American  wire  chucks  on  page  79  will  prove  useful  to 
those  persons  who  contemplate  purchasing  chucks  lor  lathes  of  foreign 
manufacture. 

Adjustable  Chuck.  The  Hopkins  patent  adjustable  chuck,  shown  in 
Fig.  66,  is  designed  to  grip  and  hold  firmly  and  accurately  any  size  of 
work  from  the  smallest  staff  to  the  largest  pinion,  watch  wheels  of  all 
sizes,  mainspring  barrels  and  other  large 
work,  and  can  be  adjusted  to  any  make 
of  lathe  by  simply  placing  it  friction 
tight,  on  a  plug  chuck  fitted  properly 
to  the  lathe.  In  using  this  chuck  for 
staffs,  pinions,  wire,  etc.,  fasten  a  V  piece 
7,  of  proper  size,  in  the  hole  in  attachment 
6,  taking  care  that  both  the  V  and  the 
seat  in  which  it  rests  are  free  from  chips, 
dirt,  etc.  Then  lay  your  work  in  the  V 
and  fasten  it  there  by  means  of  the  slid- 
ing jaw  above  it.  This  done,  place  the 
attachment  on  the  face  of  the  chuck  body,  with  the  disc  slipped  under 
the  heads  of  the  two  spring  bolts,  and  then  spin  the  work  to  center, 
same  as  when  using  wax.  After  centering  thus,  fasten  the  disc  to  place 
by  tightening  the  nuts  on  the  back  ends  of  the  spring  bolts. 


Fig.  66. 


79 


Chuck. 


*    w    o 


m 
W 
u 

u 

< 
y 

< 
o 

o 
55 
'z 

(I) 


cccccccccccccjjcccc 


lo   O 


c    n 
o    o 


o    o    o    o    o 


O    O    O    L/^ioioto^oO    O 


CO      •<*-  CO      f« 


lO  \0    00 


S     SB 


roroo    t^O     lOOO     fOLT) 


«5 


vo     O     O     "1 


jnoqv 


:^ 


N    ro 


j^    d   d  I^  <^ 

„    Z    ^     n'  _Q- 


S 


>^  >r.  >^  s^ 


6   6    x^'  -C 

OOOCCCoO 


-n  -r  -n   u   <->   u  "c;  -a  'c:   c 


o   o   o 


1)   *J 


-S   ii  ^  ^ 


>    c 


o    o    o     . 

:z;  ;z;  z  w 


0)    ^    j<    ^    J4 


Chuck. 


80 


For  holding  work  by  the  web  of  the  wheel,  place  the  wheel  under  the 
screw  cap  on  the  face  attachments  and  screw  the  cap  down  firmly  on 
it,  with  the  staff  or  pinion  projecting  outward  through  the  center  hole. 
This  done  proceed  the  same  as  when  using  No.  6. 

For  mainspring  barrels  and  like  work,  use  attachment  ii,  and  place  a 
bit  of  broken  mainspring  between  the  work  and  the  ends  of  the  three 
binding  screws,  and  tighten  the  screws  down  on  that  instead  of  directly 
on  the  work. 

Arbor  Chuck.     A  screw  chuck  on  the  end  of  which  is  a  threaded 


Fig.  67. 

arbor  for  the  reception  of  saws,  laps,  etc.,  which  are  clamped  in  position 
firmly  by  means  of  a  nut  or  thumb  screw  as  shown  in  Fig.  66. 

Bezel  Chuck.  The  Snyder  patent  Bezel  Chuck,  shown  in  Fig.  63, 
was  originally  intended  for  holding  bezels  only,  but  it  is  now  made  so 
that  it  will  hold  watch  plates,  coins,  etc.,  and  "is  adjustable  to  any  size. 
It  can  be  fitted  to  any  lathe  and  requires  but  very  little  practice  to  use  it, 
as  it  is  extremely  simple  and  any  one  who  uses  a  lathe  can  make  or 
repairbezels  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  It  holds  the  work  as  in  a  vise, 
and  no  amount  of  turning  or  jarring  will  loosen  the  jaws,  while  it  may 
be  opened  and  closed  instantly  by  simply  turning  the  milled  nut  behind 
the  face  plate,  thus  enabling  the  operator  to  turn  and  fit  a  bezel  perfectly, 
by  trying  on  the  case  as  many  times  as  necessary.  It 
holds  the  bezel  by  either  groove,  so  that  the  recess  may 
be  turned  out  when  too  sliallow  or  too  small  for  the  glass, 
or  the  bezel  may  be  inverted  and  turned  away  when  it 
rests  too  hard  on  the  dial.  It  will  be  found  especially 
useful  in  turning  out  the  inevitable  lump  of  solder  from 
the  recess  in  the  bezel,  after  soldering  and  in  fitting  to 
case,  as  the  process  of  soldering  generally  makes  the 
bezel  shorter;  and  consequently  it  will  not  fit  on  the  case. 
Fig.  68,  It  also  renders  the  operation  of  polishing  bezels  after 

soldering,  but  a  few  minutes'  work.  In  turning  out  the  recess  for  glass 
in  bezels,  especially  heavy  nickel  bezels,  it  will  prove  a  friend  indeed, 
when  for  instance,  you  look  through  your  stock  of  flat  glasses  and  find 
none  to  fit,  but  have  one  that  is  just  too  large.  All  watchmakers  know 
that  if  the  groove  in  the  bezel  is  imperfect  it  is  apt  to  break  the  glass. 
The  chuck  is  also  useful  as  a  barrel  closer,  holding  work  while  engrav- 
ing, and  many  other  uses  that  will  present  themselves  to  the  watch  or 
case  repairer. 


81 


Chuck. 


Fie. 


Cement  Chuck.  The  Spickerman  patent  cement  chuck,  shown  in 
Fig.  69,  is  a  very  handy  device,  as  it  holds  and  centers  accurately  any 
wheel  in  a  watch  while  drilling,  polishing  or  fitting  new  staffs  or  pinions, 

and  all  danger  of   injuring   wheels   is 

obviated.     It  fits  all  kinds  of  American 

or  Swiss  lathes.     The  holder  shown  in 

Fig.  70  at  a,  is  turned  down  to  nearly 

the  size  of  the  screw  for  the  lathe 

and  the  screw  cut  so  the  holder 

will  set  as  close  as  possible  to  the^ 

lathe.     The  face  of  the  holder  is| 

/llK    Mk^KS^     JK^^     ^^^"  turned  perfectly  true.      Put 

Hi  SSsH^  iWft^   wheel  to  be  centered  in  cap c,  as 

fllH^^Sfl  BF^Bmifl^^^l  near  to  center  as  convenient  and 

W^  w^^j^r  ^^S^W  holder  a  on  the  lathe  and  with  a 
lamp,  warm  the  cement  between 
the  surfaces,  holding  the  chuck 
with  a  stick  against  the  pivot  of  wheel  in  the  cap,  and  it  will  move 
to  an  exact  center  as  soon  as  warmed  sufficiently.  New  cement 
should  be  added  occasionally  between  the  surfaces,  as  it  hardens 
and  burns  away  and  does  not  center  as  well  as  when  new.  Fig. 
69  shows  chuck  with  wheel  inside  ready  for  drilling.  See  also 
Cement  Brasses. 

Chuck  Stepping  Device.  In  this  device,  shown  in  Fig.  71,  A 
rests  in  chuck  slightly  less  than  diameter  of  work.  B  tightens  in 
rear  end  of  draw-in-spindle.     Turning  c  regulates  depth  of  step. 

By  the  use  of  this  tool  any  wire  chuck  will  accurately  serve  as 
a  step  chuck.  It  is  a  device  of  great  service  to  the  watchmaker 
when  used  and  understood.  It  enables  him  to  make  a  step  in 
any  wire  chuck  of  any  depth  he  may  wish,  and  will  push  out  the 
work  if  desired.  It  is  very  useful  many  times  for  a  stop  for  mark- 
ing or  cutting  off  when  you  want  a  number  of  pieces  of  the  same 
length  or  kind.  Many  object  to  the  stepped  chuck  for  general 
use,  objections  which  this  device  obviates. 

Conoidal  Chuck.     A  wire  chuck  which  has  a  conoidal  shape  in 

lieu  of  the  shoulder  usually  left 

on  wire  chucks  for  the  bend  in 

the  lathe  head.      Fig.  72  illus-  Fig^7i, 

trates    the    usual    form    of  conoidal 

Fig.  72.  chucks. 

Crown  Chuck.     A  chuck  for  holding  watch  crowns  while  undergoing 

repairs  of  various  kinds.     Figure  73  illustrates  the  Dale  chuck,  which  is 


Chuck. 


83 


Fi§.  73. 


made  on  the  lines  of  the  ordinary  split  wire  chuck,  a  large  recess  being 

turned  in  the  end  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  crown.     The  draw-in 
of   the   chuck   holds   the   crown 
firmly   in    place.      Fig.  74  illus- 
trates the  Johanson  chuck,  which 
is   intended   to  hold  all   sizes  of 
crowns,  from  the  smallest  to   the  largest. 
The  figure  clearly  shows  the  adjustment  of 
parts.     This  chuck  is  manufactured  in  two 
styles,  one  like  Fig.  74,  which  is  ready  to 
insert   into  a   number   40   wire   chuck   of 
an  American  lathe,  while  the  other  style  is 
mounted  on  a  regular  chuck  and  is  always 
ready  to  insert  into   the   lathe  head,  the 
same  as  an  ordinary  split  chuck. 


Fig.  74. 


Dead  Center  Chuck.     By  the  use  of  this  chuck,  shown  in  Fig.  75,  the 
work  can  be  run  on  dead  centers 
as  well  as  by  the  bow  or  verge 
lathe,  and  the   motion    will  be 
continuous. 

Drill   Chuck.     A  small  chuck 


Fig.  76.  Fig.  75. 

for  holding  drills,  made  to  fit  in  tail-stock  spindles  or  taper  chucks.     Fig. 
76  illustrates  the  Gem  Pivot  Drill  Chuck. 


Fig.  77. 


Jeweling  Chuck.  The  Hutchinson  Jeweling  Chuck,  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  77,  is  intended  as  a  substitute  for  wax,  when  manipulating 
jewels.  The  cut  represents  a  full  size  chuck,  which 
is  made  similar  to  the  ordinary  split  chuck,  but  has 
an  adjustable  center  which  can  be  moved  backward 
or  forward  by  means  of  the  screw  in  the  rear,  and 
is  used  to  support  the  jewel  while  in  place  in  the 
chuck.  They  are  made  in  three  sizes.  Another 
form  of  jeweling  chuck  is  shown  in  Fig.  78,  and  is 
known  as  the  Deuss  Chuck.  It  is  a  self-centering 
chuck  which  will  hold  all  sizes  of  jewels  and  fits  the 
wheel  or  step  chucks  of  all  American  lathes. 

Fig. 

Pivoting  Chuck.     The  Gem  patent  pivoting  chuck,  shown  in  Figs.  79 
and  80,  is  intended  as  a  substitute  for  wax  for  pivoting  and  like  work. 


83 


Chuck. 


By  the  means  of  the  ball  b,  placed  between  the  two  sliding  sockets  c  c, 
with  the  several  other  parts  as  represented  in  Fig.  79,  a  combination  of 
sliding  and  ball  and  socket  movements  in  connection  with  a  spring  pump 
center,  is  obtained.  A  set  of  ten  or  more,  supplementary  chucks^,  with 
different  sizes  of  center  holes,  and  attachment  «,  for  all  sizes  of  wheels, 
are  furnished  with  each  chuck.    The  supplementary  chuck^,  in  the  form 


Fig.  79. 

of  a  small  split  chuck,  is  made  to  fit  into  a  hole  with  taper  mouth  in  the 
center  of  the  ball  5,  and  is  drawn  into  place  and  the  work  fastened  firmly 
in  it  by  means  of  the  binding  nut  m,  which  screws  on  to  a  projection 
extending  outward  from  front  side  of  the  ball. 

To  use  this  chuck  proceed  as  follows:  Remove  the  nut  m,  and  give 
freedom  to  the  working  parts  by  loosening  the  large  back  nut  k.  Then 
to  bring  the  hole  through  the  ball  d,  into  line,  spin  the  ball  to  center,  first 
at  the  base  of  the  projecting  screw  and  then  at  the  mouth  of  the  hole 
through  it,  and  in  this  position  again  fasten  the  parts,  by  tightening  the 
nut  k.  Then  give  freedom  to  the  pump  center  by  slightly  loosening  the 
set  screwy.  When  doing  this,  hold  your  finger  against  the  front  of  the 
chuck,  to  prevent  the  center  rod   from   shooting  out  of  its  place  when 


Fig.  SO. 

freed.  Then  having  placed  a  supplementary  chuck  ^,  of  proper  size,  in 
its  place  in  the  chuck,  and  your  work  in  it,  with  its  back  end  resting 
properly  in  the  countersink  in  the  end  of  the  pump  center,  fasten  it  there 
by  screwing  the  cap  m  down  snugly  over  it,  using  a  small  lever  pin  when 
necessary  for  this  purpose,  but  not  with  nndue  force.  Then  again  loosen 
the  nut  k  and  spin  the  work  to  center  at  its  outer  end;  and  then  tighten 
both  the  nut  k  and  set  screw/.  In  tightening  the  set  screw/,  make  sure 
it  is  so  tightened  as  to  prevent  the  pump  center  from  slipping  from  place 


Chuck. 


84 


when  working.  If  from  tightening  the  screw/,  it  is  found  that  the  work 
has  been  thrown  in  any  degree  away  from  true  center,  loosen  the  nut  k, 
leaving  the  pump  center  fast,  and  again  spin  to  center,  and  fasten  as 
before.  All  of  which  after  a  little  practice  may  be  done,  and  the  work 
be  brought  to  absolute  truth  in  a  few  moments. 

In  using  attachment  n  for  wheels,  the  nut  w  and  chuck  ^  are  removed, 
and  »  substituted  therefor;  the  work  being  held  on  the  face  of  the  attach- 
ment by  flat  headed  screws  that  grip  the  arms  of  the  wheel.  For  cylin- 
der escape  wheels  a  special  attachment  «  is  furnished.  The  best  thing 
to  use  when  spinning  work  to  enter  in  the  chuck,  is  a  bit  of  peg  wood  of 
wedge  shape  at  one  end.  The  countersinks  in  the  ends  of  the  pump 
center  should  in  all  cases  be  carefully  tested,  and  if  need  be  trued  up  in 
the  lathe  in  which  the  chuck  is  to  be  used.  In  doing  this,  use  a  good, 
fine-pointed  sharp  graver,  and  make  sure  the  countersink  is  perfectly 
true.  The  same  rules  in  regard  to  truth  in  the  countersink,  and  having 
the  work  rest  properly  in  it,  are  to  be  observed  in  using  this  chuck  as 
when  using  wax. 

Screw  Chuck.  A  solid  chuck  having  a  threaded  hole  in  the  end  for 
the  reception  of  cement  brasses,  laps,  etc.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8i. 


Fig.  81. 


Fig.  82. 


Shoulder  Chuck.     A  chuck  having  a  large  opening  in  the  end  with 
square  shoulders  for  the  work  to  rest  upon  as  shown  in  Fig.  82. 


Step  or  Wheel  Chucks.  These  chucks  are  usually  made  in  sets  of 
five,  each  chuck  having  nine  steps,  giving  forty-five  different  sizes. 
These  chucks  are  very  useful  in  holding  main  spring  barrels,  to  fit  in  the 

cap  of  the  barrel,  should  it  become 

out  of   true.     They  are  also  valuable 

in   truing  up  barrels  of  English  lever 

watches,  that  are  damaged  owing  to 

the  breakage  of  a  main  spring.    They 

are  also  very  useful  in  holding  almost 

any  wheel  in  a  watch,  but  particularly 

convenient  in  fitting  a  center  wheel 

to  a  pinion,  or  in  making   sure  that 

J^ifl'-  S3.  the  hole  in  the  wheel  is  in  the  center. 

These  chucks  are  made  by  the   various  lathe  manufacturers  and  are  all 

similar  to  Fig.  83,  and  will  hold  wheels  from  .5  to  2.26. 


85 


Chuck  Box. 


Taper  Chuck.     A  solid  chuck  having  a  large  opening  for  the  recep- 
tion of  tapers,  centers,  laps,  etc.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  84. 


Fig.  84. 

CHUCK  BOX.     A  circular  box  with  lid,  for  holding  chucks.    They 
are  usually  made  of  cherry  or  mahogany.     By  keeping  your  chucks  in  a 


Fig.  85. 

box  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  85,  you  can  find  a  chuck  of  the  desired 
size  in  a  moment  and  the  chucks  are  less  liable  to  be  damaged  than  when 
kept  in  a  drawer  with  miscellaneous  tools. 

CIRCULAR  ERROR.     In  a  pendulum  clock  the  difference  of  time 
caused  by  the  pendulum  following  a  circular  instead  of  a  cycloidal  path. 


CLAMPS.  Movable  pieces  of  brass,  lead,  leather  or  cork  attached  to 
jhe  jaws  of  a  vise  while  holding  objects  that  would  be  injured  by  the  vise 
jaws. 


Cleansing,  Etc.  86 

CLEANSING,  PICKLING  AND  POLISHING. 

To  Clean  Pendulums.  Brass  pendulum  bobs  are  often  found  with 
black  stains  upon  them  that  prove  very  obstinate  to  remove.  Heat  the 
bob  moderately,  touch  the  stains  with  a  brush  dipped  in  nitric  acid,  rub 
with  a  linen  rag  and  again  heat  moderately. 

To  Clean  Silver.  Articles  of  silver,  either  solid  or  plated,  are  quickly 
and  easily  .cleaned  by  dipping  in  a  moderate  concentrated  solution  of 
potassium  cyanide  and  then  thoroughly  rinsing  in  water.  Jewelers  will 
find  it  very  convenient  to  have  three  stone  jars,  with  tight  fitting  covers, 
to  exclude  all  dirt.  Label  the  jars  "Cyanide,"  "  ist  Water"  and 
"  Second  Water.'  In  these,  large  pieces  of  silverware  can  be  cleaned 
with  ease  by  dipping  into  the  cyanide,  then  into  jar  number  one  and 
then  jar  number  two.  Dry  with  a  soft  linen  rag  and  the  articles  will  be 
found  free  from  all  stains. 

To  Clean  Nickel.  The  nickel  plates  of  watches  are  sometimes  found 
to  have  rust  stains  upon  them.  These  can  be  removed  by  rubbing  the 
spot  with  grease,  allowing  them  to  stand  for  a  few  days,  and  rubbing 
thoroughly  with  a  cloth  moistened  with  ammonia.  In  obstinate  cases, 
repeat  the  operation  or  touch  the  stains  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid 
and  rub  thoroughly.  Rinse  in  clean  water  and  polish.  A  mixture  of 
fifty  parts  of  rectified  alcohol  and  one  part  of  sulphuric  acid  is  also  valu- 
able for  cleaning  nickel  plates.  Immerse  for  ten  or  fifteen  seconds,  no 
longer,  rinse  in  alcohol,  and  dry  in  sawdust. 

To  Clean  Brass.  To  clean  old  brass,  especially  small  figures,  paper 
knives,  etc.,  immerse  them  in  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  nitric  acid  and 
half  part  of  sulphuric  acid.  Allow  them  to  remain  a  short  time, 
rinse  thoroughly  in  cold  water,  dry  in  sawdust  and  polish  with  Vienna 
lime,  when  they  will  appear  like  new. 

Pickling  of  Metals.  Metals  are  pickled  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  the  oxide  and  producing  a  lustrous  surface.  An  excellent 
pickle  for  brass  consists  of  ten  parts  of  water  and  one  of  sulphuric 
acid.  Dip  into  this  pickle,  wash,  dry,  and  immediately  dip  into  a  second 
pickle  consisting  of  two  parts  of  nitric  acid  and  one  of  sulphuric  acid 
and  rinse  thoroughly.  This  dissolves  the  zinc  from  the  brass,  and  gives 
the  metal  a  brilliant  surface.  All  pickling  operations  with  either  hot  or 
cold  pickle  should  be  carried  on  in  the  open  air  or  in  the  draft  of  a  well 
drawing  chimney,  as  the  vapors  arising  from  the  acids  are  very  injurious. 
In  order  to  retain  the  luster,  a  good  transparent  varnish  should  be 
applied. 


87  Cleansing,  Etc 

Pickle  for  German  Silver.  To  twelve  parts  of  water  add  one  part  of 
nitric  acid ;  immerse  the  article  in  this,  quickly  remove,  and  place  in  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acid,  rinse  thoroughly  in 
water  and  dry  in  sawdust.  In  all  cases  of  pickling  it  is  essential  that  all 
traces  of  acid  be  removed  by  frequent  washings  in  clean  water. 

Pickle  for  Gold  Alloys.  Gold  alloys,  especially  those  containing 
copper,  assume  an  unsightly  dark  brown  exterior,  owing  to  the  copper 
oxide  generated  by  the  repeated  glow  heating  necessary  during  work. 
In  order  to  remove  this  the  object  must  be  pickled,  and  either  highly 
diluted  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  is  used  for  the  purpose,  according  to  the 
color  the  article  is  designed  to  have. 

If  working  with  an  alloy  consisting  only  of  gold  and  copper,  either 
sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  may  be  used  indifferently,  since  gold  is  not 
attacked  by  either  of  these  acids,  while  copper  oxide  is  easily  decom- 
posed thereby,  and  after  having  been  pickled,  the  article  will  assume 
the  color  of  pure  gold,  because  its  surface  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  the 
pure  metal. 

If  the  alloy  is  composed  of  pure  gold  and  silver  however,  only  nitric 
acid  can  be  employed,  and  the  article  is  left  immersed  in  it  only  for  a 
short  time;  this  acid  dissolves  a  very  small  portion  of  the  silver,  and  the 
article  also  assumes  the  color  of  pure  gold. 

When  working  with  an  alloy  which,  besides  the  gold,  contains  both 
copper  and  silver,  the  process  of  pickling  may  be  varied  in  accordance 
with  the  color  desired  to  be  given  to  the  article.  If  the  pickling  is  per- 
formed in  sulphuric  acid,  the  copper  alone  is  dissolved,  the  article  as- 
suming a  color  corresponding  to  a  gold-silver  alloy,  which  now  consti- 
tutes the  surface  of  the  article. 

If  nitric  acid  is  used  it  will  dissolve  the  silver  as  well  as  the  copper 
and  in  this  case  a  pure  gold  color  is  produced. 

Pickling  is  done  by  first  feebly  glow-heating  the  article  and  cooling  it; 
this  operation  is  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  any  fat  from  the  hands  or 
other  contamination  adhering  to  the  article.  If  it  was  soldered  with 
some  easily-flowing  solder,  this  glow-heating  must  be  omitted,  but  it 
may  be  cleansed  from  impurities  by  immersing  it  at  first  into  very  strong 
caustic  lye,  and  rinsing  it  with  water;  it  is  then  laid  into  the  acid. 

The  acids  are  employed  in  a  dilute  state,  taking  forty  parts  water  to 
one  part  concentrated  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid.  If  more  articles  than  one, 
they  had  best  be  laid  beside  each  other  in  a  porcelain  or  stoneware  dish, 
the  diluted  acid  is  poured  over  them,  and  some  article  is  lifted  out  from 
time  to  time  to  watch  the  course  of  proceedings,  whether  it  has  assumed 
a  yellow  color. 

When  to  satisfaction,  they  are  rinsed  with  clean  water  and  dried. 
While  pickling  for  the  purpose  only  of  causing  the  color  peculiar  to 
gold  to  appear,  the  process  of  coloring  has  for  its  object  to  lend  the 


Cleansing,  Etc.  88 

appearance  of  very  fine  gold  to  an  article  of  an  indifferent  alloy.  Various 
mixtures  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose,  and  we  give  two  receipts 
below  which  are  very  appropriate : 

Mix  two  parts  saltpeter,  i  part  table  salt  and  six  parts  alum  with  6  '/^ 
parts  water,  and  place  in  a  porcelain  dish  for  heating.  As  soon  as  you 
notice  that  the  mixture  begins  to  rise,  add  i  part  of  muriatic  acid,  raise 
the  whole  to  boiling  and  stir  with  a  glass  rod. 

The  article  to  be  colored,  and  previously  treated  with  sulphuric  acid, 
as  specified,  is  suspended  to  a  hook,  either  of  sufficiently  thick  platinum 
wire  or  glass ;  it  is  then  introduced  into  the  rather  slow  boiling  bath,  and 
moved  around  in  it.  It  is  to  be  taken  out  in  about  three  minutes,  and 
rinsed  in  clean  water,  inspecting  its  color  at  the  same  time.  If  not  to 
satisfaction,  it  is  returned  to  the  bath,  and  this  withdrawing  it  or  intro- 
ducing is  repeated  until  the  desired  color  is  obtained.  By  the  latter  im- 
mersions the  article  is  left  only  one  minute  at  a  time  in  the  fluid. 

When  suflSciently  colored  the  article,  after  rinsing,  will  be  of  a  high 
yellow  and  mat  color;  it  is  washed  repeatedly  in  water  to  remove  the  last 
traces  of  the  bath,  and  then  dried  in  hot  boxwood  sawdust. 

In  place  of  drying  in  sawdust  the  article  may  also  be  dipped  in  boiling 
water,  leaving  it  in  for  a  few  seconds ;  the  adhering  water  will  evaporate 
almost  instantaneously. 

The  second  coloring  method  consists  in  pouring  water  over  a  mixture 
of  115  parts  table  salt  and  230  nitric  acid,  so  that  the  salt  is  dissolved;  it 
is  then  to  be  heated  until  a  dry  salt  residue  is  again  present.  This  resi- 
due is  mixed  with  172  parts  fuming  muriatic  acid  and  heated  to  boiling 
for  which  purpose  a  porcelain  vessel  is  to  be  used. 

As  soon  as  the  pungent  odor  of  chlorine'gas  begins  to  evolve,  the 
article  to  be  colored  is  immersed,  and  left  for  about  eight  minutes  in  the 
fluid  for  the  first  time ;  in  other  respects,  a  similar  treatment  as  specified 
above,  is  also  used  for  this  method ;  if  the  article  colored  was  polished 
previously,  a  subsequent  polishing  is  unnecessary. 

On  account  of  the  vapors  evolved  by  the  coloring  baths,  which  are 
very  dangerous  to  health,  the  operations  should  be  performed  either 
under  a  well-drawing  flue,  or  what  is  still  better,  in  open  air. — Goldsch 
Miedekunst, 

Polishing  Agents.  Various  polishing  agents  are  used  by  watchmak- 
ers, jewelers,  gold  and  silversmiths,  a  few  of  which  are  here  described. 
Where  the  article  will  admit  of  it,  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  polish- 
ing in  the  lathe.  For  this  purpose  the  watchmaker  should  not  use  his 
regular  lathe,  but  should  have  for  the  purpose  what  is  known  as  a  polish- 
ing lathe,  fitted  with  its  various  attachments  in  the  shape  of  scratch- 
brushes,  buifs,  etc. 

Ferric  Oxide.  This  material  is  used  in  its  natural  state  and  also  pre- 
pared artificially  under  various  names,  such  as  crocus,  red  stuff  and  rouge 


89  Cleansing,  Etc. 

It  is  used  for  polishing  fine  articles  of  steel,   gold,   silver,   copper   and 
bronze. 

Tin  Putty  is  an  artificial  compound  prepared  from  glowing  oxalate  of 
tin,  which  is  obtained  by  decomposing  tin  salt  with  oxalic  acid. 

Tripoli.  A  gray-white  or  yellowish  powder,  which  is  made  from  the 
shells  of  microscopic  organisms.  It  is  used  for  polishing  soft  metals, 
first  with  oil,  and  then  dry. 

Lime.  This  material  is  used  in  the  burned  and  unslaked  state.  A 
popular  variety  is  known  as  the  Vienna  lime.     See  that  heading. 

Belgian  Polishing  Powder.  This  powder  is  used  for  polishing  articles 
of  silver  and  silver  plated  ware.  It  consists  of  a  mixture  of  250  parts  of 
whiting,  117  parts  elutriated  pipe-clay,  62  parts  white  lead,  23  parts  white 
magnesia,  and  23  parts  rouge. 

English  Silver  Soap.  This  mixture,  which  is  used  for  polishing  sil- 
verware, is  prepared  as  follows :  Dissolve  2  parts  of  castile  soap  in  2  parts 
of  soft  water  over  a  fire;  when  melted  remove  and  stir  in  6  parts  of  fine 
whiting,  pour  into  moulds  and  allow  it  to  cool,  A  little  rouge  may  be 
added  as  coloring  matter  if  desirable. 

English  Silver  Paste.  Three  parts  of  perfumed  vaseline,  5  parts  of 
whiting,  I  part  of  burnt  hartshorn,  and  one  of  pulverized  cuttle  bone. 
Stir  well  and  put  up  in  tin  boxes. 

Gold  Polishing  Powder.  Mix  together  4.3  parts  of  alumina,  17.4  of 
chalk,  4.3  of  carbonate  of  lead,  1.7  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  1.7  of 
rouge. 

Polishing  Paste  for  Brass.  Dissolve  15  parts  of  oxalic  acid  in  120 
parts  of  boiling  water  and  add  500  parts  of  pumice  powder,  7  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  60  of  soft  soap,  and  65  of  fat  oil. 

The  polishing  agent  is  usually  mixed  with  oil,  alcohol  or  water  to  pre- 
vent scattering,  and  is  then  applied  by  the  polishing  tool  in  the  shape  of 
cloth  and  leather  buffs,  polishing  files,  etc.  Either  the  work  or  the  tool 
should  revolve  with  great  velocity  in  order  to  secure  good  results.  Manx- 
articles  are  brought  to  a  high  degree  of  polish  by  the  use  of  the  burnisher, 
after  subjecting  them  to  the  action  of  the  ordinary  polishing  agents.  See 
Burnisher,  also  Buff. 

Scratch  Brushing.  Articles  in  relief  which  do  not  admit  of  the  use 
of  the  burnisher  are  brightened  by  the  aid  of  the  scratch  brush.      The 


Cleat.  90 

shape  of  the  brush  varies  according  to  the  article  to  be  operated  upon. 
Hand  scratch  brushes  are  sometimes  made  of  spun  glass,  with  fibres  of 
extreme  fineness  and  elasticity,  and  are  used  for  scouring  only  very  deli- 
cate objects.  They  are  also  made  of  numerous  wires  of  hardened 
brass  and  are  prepared  in  similar  form  to  the  glass  brushes,  except  when 
purchased  the  ends  of  the  wires  are  not  cut  off,  the  operator  being  expec- 
ted to  do  so  before  using  them.  The  object  in  leaving  the  wires  con- 
nected being  to  prevent  them  becoming  damaged.  Circular  scratch 
brushes,  in  which  the  wires  are  arranged  radially,  are  used  for  scouring 
articles  which  will  admit  of  their  use.  They  are  attached  to  the  spindle 
of  a  polishing  lathe,  and  the  wires  consequently  all  receive  a  uniform 
motion  in  the  same  direction.  Scratch  brushes  are  seldom,  if  ever,  used 
dry,  the  tool  and  the  work  being  constantly  wet  with  a  decoction  of  soap- 
root,  marshmallow,  cream  of  tartar,  alum  or  licorice  root.  With  small 
articles  the  scratch  brush  is  held  as  you  would  a  pencil,  and  is  moved 
over  the  articles  with  a  backward  and  forward  motion.  The  brushes 
must  be  carefully  looked  after  and  the  wires  kept  straight  and  in  good 
order.  If  they  become  greasy  they  are  cleansed  in  caustic  potash,  and  if 
they  become  rough  they  are  sometimes  dipped  into  nitric  acid.  With 
circular  brushes  it  is  well  to  reverse  them  occasionally  in  order  to  change 
the  direction  of  the  wires.  Dirty  polishing  leathers  should  be  cleaned 
by  soaking  them  for  an  hour  or  two  in  a  weak  solution  of  soda  in  warm 
water,  first  rubbing  the  leather  thoroughly  with  soap.  Rinse  thoroughly 
and  wash  in  soap  and  water.  The  soap  in  the  water  will  keep  the  leather 
soft  and  pliable.  Dry  it  in  a  towel  and  rub  it  thoroughly  and  your  leather 
will  be  much  better  than  any  new  one  you  can  buy. 

CLEAT.  A  narrow  or  thin  piece  of  metal  used  to  fasten  two  pieces 
of  metal  together  by  the  aid  of  solder,  screws  or  rivets. 

CLEMENT,  WILLIAM.  A  London  clockmaker,  who  in  1680, 
laid  claim  to  the  invention  of  the  long  or  royal  pendulum. 

CLEPSYDRA.  A  water  clock.  A  machine  used  anciently  for 
measuring  time  by  means  of  the  discharge  of  water  through  a  small 
aperture.  The  Egyptians  divided  the  space  between  sunrise  and  sunset 
into  twelve  hours,  known  as  day,  and  between  sunset  and  sunrise  into 
twelve  others,  known  at  night.  The  days  and  nights  therefore  varied 
according  to  the  seasons,  so  that  the  artificial  divisions  varied  in  like  pro- 
portions, rendering  the  task  of  inventing  a  mechanism  capable  of  being 
retarded  or  accelerated  quite  a  formidable  one  for  the  mechanic  of  that 
day.  The  clock  illustrated  in  Fig.  86  was  so  constructed  that  its  aperture 
was  adjusted  as  the  year  advanced  by  the  attachment  of  an  index  to  the 
sun's  place  in  an  ecliptic  circle.  It  consists  of  a  reservoir,  A,  at  the  top 
of  which  will  be  seen  a  waste  pipe,  to  carry  off  the  superfluous  water 


91 


Clepsydra. 


and  thus  keep  the  level  the  same  at  all  times.  From  this  reservoir  pro- 
jects a  pipe,  B^  which  connects  with  the  rim  of  a  drum,  M,  JV,  on  the 
front  of  which  is  a  circle  with  the  signs  of  the  ecliptic  engraved  upon  its 
dial.  Fitting  inside  this  large  drum  is  a  smaller  one,  O  F,  having  an 
index  attached  to  it.  This  drum  has  a  groove  or  slot,  a  b,  cut  through  it, 
tapering  in  breadth  both  ways  to  a  point.  This  tapering  groove,  when 
the  part*  are  in  their  places,  comes  just  under  the  end  of  the  pipe  leading 
from  the  reservoir.  This  smaller  drum  turns  upon  the  pipe  F,  which  is 
continued  within  and  has  a  funnel  attached  for  receiving  the  water  as  it 
drops  through  the  groove  in  the  drum.  The  index  or  hand  is  double, 
L  for  day  and  O  for  night,  and  it  will  be  evident  that  as  it  is  turned  the 


Fig.  86. 


capacity  of  the  orifice  is  altered  and  the  water  is  regulated  to  pass  more  or 
less  rapidly  through  the  pipe.  The  ecliptic  being  properly  divided,  the 
hand  was  set  to  the  proper  sign  in  which  the  sun  then  was  and  was 
altered  as  it  shifted  around  the  ecliptic.  The  water,  after  passing  through 
the  regulator  and  the  pipe  C,  dropped  into  the  cylinder  H,  in  which  was 
a  float  /,  connected  by  a  chain  passing  over  a  pulley  on  an  arbor  P,  and 
having  a  counter-poise  weight  ^attached  to  its  dther  end.  To  the  pul- 
ley was  attached  a  hand  which  pointed  to  the  hour  on  the  circular  dial. 
A  water  clock,  made  by  Ctesibius,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  87.  The  water 
dropped  into  a  funnel  A,  and  was  conveyed  to  the  reservoir  by  means  of 
the  pipe  M.  In  this  cylinder  was  located  a  float,  to  which  was  attached 
a  light  pillar,  on  top  of  which  was  a  figure  pointing  to  the  hour  upon 
a  column  opposite.  Attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  water  cylinder  was  a 
small  pipe,  bent  in  the  form  of  a  svphon.  as  shown  at  E  B  F.     As  the 


Clepsydra. 


92 


water  rose  in  the  cylinder  it  also  rose  in  the  small  pipe  until  it  reached 
the  top,  when  it  flowed  over  the  bend,  thus  filling  the  syphon,  and  by  a 
well  known  law  it  quickly  emptied  the  cylinder,  the  float  and  figure 
falling  as  the  water  receded.  In  order  to  overcome  the  obstacle  of 
hours  of  a  varying  length,  the  inventor  very  cleverly  drew  the  divisions 
on  the  column  out  of  horizontal,  so  as  to 
vary  in  their  distance  on  different  sides  of 
the  column.  As  the  water  came  from  the 
syphon  it  fell  into  receptacles  in  a  wheel, 
shown  at  K^  which,  turning  with  the 
weight,  as  each  compartment  filled,  caused 
the  cylinder  to  revolve  by  the   action  of 


Fig.  «7.  Fig.  88. 

the  pinion  on  its  axis,  taking  into  the  contrate  wheel  /,  which  by  another 
pinion  H,  turned  the  wheel  and  shaft  G  and  X.  In  this  way  a  variable 
scale  of  divisions  was  presented  to  the  index,  the  space  being  regulated  by 
the  number  of  teeth  in  the  wheels.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  date  of  the 
revival  of  the  clepsydra,  one  authority  placing  the  date  at  1646,  while 
another  gives  it  as  1693.  A  clepsydra  of  the  seventeenth  century  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  88.  It  consisted  of  an  oblong  frame  of  wood,  A  B  C  D, 
to  the  upper  part  of  which  two  cords  A  a,  B  />,  are  fixed  at  their  superior 
extremities  and  at  their  inferior  are  wound  around  the  axis  of  the  drum 
E.     This  drum   was  divided  into  several  water-tight   compartments,  as 


93  Clerkenwell. 

shown  in  Fig.  89.     The  cord  was  wound  around  the  axis  until  the  drum 
was  elevated  to  the  top  of  the  frame  and  it  was  then  left  to  obey  the  force 
of  gravity.    A   hole  was  pierced  near  the  bottom  of  each    compart- 
ment, allowing  the  water  to  slowly  ooze  from 
one  compartment  to  the  other,  thus  causing 
the  drum  to  revolve  with  a  certain  degree  of 
accuracy.      The  rate  of  motion  was  regulated 
by  altering  the   size  of  the  apertures.     The 
hours  were  indicated  in  two  ways;  one  by  the 
axis  pointing  out  the  hours  on  the  side  of  the 
frame  as  it  revolved,  and  another  by  passing 
a  cord,  c  d,  over  a  pulley  attached  to  an  arbor, 
having  an  index  or  hand   to  point  out  the 
hours  on  a  dial,  a  weight,  F.  being  fastened  to 
the  other  end  of  the  cord.  ^''^'  *^' 

CLERKENWELL.  One  of  the  great  watch  and  clock  centers  of 
England.  It  is  one  of  the  parishes  of  London,  and  within  its  limits 
every  branch  of  the  watch  trade  is  carried  on. 

CLICHE.  The  forming  of  metal  objects  by  means  of  forcing  a  die 
into  heated  metal, 

CLICK.  A  pawl  or  dog  which  falls  into  a  ratchet  wheel  and  pre- 
vents it  from  turning  backward,  and  is  usually  held  in  position  by  means 
of  a  spring,  known  as  the  click  spring.  A  ratchet  wheel  with  click  is 
fixed  to  the  barrel  arbor  of  watches  and  clocks  to  maintain  the  main- 
spring after  being  wound. 

Click  Spring.  The  spring  which  holds  the  click  in  position  on  a 
ratchet  wheel's  tooth. 

To  Mount  a  Click  Spring.  When  the  old  click  spring  has  been 
taken  down  from  the  bridge,  find  a  new  one,  which,  in  length  from  click 
to  foot,  into  which  the  holes  are  drilled  for  fastening,  is  suited  to  the 
shape  and  length  of  the  bridge.  With  three  claws  fasten  this  latter  in 
an  uprighting  tool,  placing  the  centering  center  into  the  screw  hole  of 
the  bridge,  which  serves  for  screwing  on  the  click  spring.  When  the 
bridge  has  in  this  manner  been  mounted  well  upon  the  plate  of  the 
uprighting  tool,  i-aise  up  the  centering  center  and  lay  the  new  click  spring 
exactly  as  it  is  to  be  located  in  its  place  upon  the  bridge,  carefully  pre- 
venting  the  claws  from  covering  that  part  of  the  bridge  to  which  the 
spring  is  fastened.  The  upper  face  of  the  spring  must,  by  so  much  as 
will  be  lost  afterwards  in  grinding  and  polishing,  protrude  beyond  the 
surface  of  the  barrel  bridge.     Then  retain   the   spring  in   its   place  by 


Clocks.  94 

applying  a  finger,  and  lower  the  point  of  the  uprighting  tool  upon  the 
click  spring,  making  a  dot  by  applying  a  gentle  pressure  exactly  at  the 
true  spot.  This  dot  is  enlarged  by  punching,  and  a  hole  is  then  drilled 
exactly  to  suit  the  size  of  the  screw.  The  burr  is  next  removed,  and  the 
spring  finished  suitable  to  shape  and  length.  If  the  bridge  contains  a 
foot- pin  hole,  bush  it  by  firmly  driving  into  it  a  brass  pin,  file  off  its 
projecting  part  level  with  the  bridge,  and  screw  the  spring  in  place. 
Then  drill,  as  closely  as  possible,  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  spring,  a 
small  hole  for  the  pin,  clear  through  into  the  bridge.  Harden  the  spring, 
anneal  it,  chamfer  and  polish  the  edges,  grind  and  polish  the  surface ; 
fit  the  foot  pin. 

CLOCKS.  It  has  been  a  matter  of  no  small  dispute  as  to  who  first 
invented  clocks  employing  a  weight  for  the  motive  power.  Pacificus, 
Archdeacon  of  Verona,  is  said  to  have  constructed  a  clock  in  850  A.  D., 
which  marked,  besides  the  hours,  the  days  of  the  week,  the  phases  of 
the  moon,  etc.  Bailly,  in  his  history  of  Modern  Astronomy,  argues 
very  forcibly  in  favor  of  Pacificus,  saying  that  he  was  the  inventor  of 
an  escapement,  in  which  the  inertia  of  a  balance  was  employed  to  retard 
and  regulate  the  movement  of  a  train  of  wheels  moved  by  a  weight. 
Father  Alexandre,  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  clocks,  decides  against 
Pacificus  as  the  inventor  of  the  weight  clock,  and  Berthoud  is  of  the 
same  opinion.  Nelthropp,  in  his  treastise  on  watch  work,  says  that  it  is 
more  than  probable,  almost  certain,  that  to  the  Moors  of  Spain  the  world 
is  indebted  for  the  great  advance  in  clock  work,  and  that  from  Cordova, 
Granada  and  Barcelona  went  forth  the  ideas  which  gave  birth  to  the 
weight  as  a  motive  power,  instead  of  water.'  Nelthropp  is  of  the  opinion 
that  the  inventor  of  the  weight  clock  was  one  Gerbert,  who  was  born  in 
920,  A.  D.,  in  the  village  of  Belliac  in  Auvergne.  Certain  it  is  that  in  996 
he  made  a  clock  for  Madgeburg,  which  writers  agree  in  stating  had  a 
weight  for  the  motive  power.  After  various  ups  and  downs  he  became 
Pope,  under  the  name  of  Sylvester  II.,  in  the  year  999. 

According  to  Stowe,  a  clock  was  erected  near  Westminister  Hall,  out 
of  a  fine  of  800  marks  imposed  upon  Ralph  de  Heugham,  Chief  Justice 
of  the  King's  Bench,  in  1288,  A.  D.  In  1292  a  clock  was  erected  in  Can- 
terbury Cathedral,  by  Henry,  the  Prior.  In  1317,  a  clock  was  erected  in 
Exeter  Cathedral.  In  1326,  Richard  Wallingford,  Abbot  of  St  Albans, 
constructed  for  the  abbey  a  clock,  which,  Leland  says,  showed  the  course 
of  the  sun,  moon  and  planets,  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides.  In  1344 
a  clock  was  constructed  for  Padua  by  a'  workman  named  Antoine,  after 
the  designs  of  Jacques  de  Dondis.  In  1348,  a  clock  was  constructed  for 
Dover  Castle,  with  wheels  and  frame  of  wrought  iron;  escapement,  a 
crown  wheel  acting  on  pallets  fixed  to  a  verge,  the  upper  end  of  which 
was  suspended  to  a  cock  by  a  piece  of  cord,  so  as  to  hang  perpendicular; 
lower  end,  a  pivot  working  into  a  kind  of   stud  attached  to  frame; 


95 


Clocks. 


balance,  an  iron  bar,  each  end   terminating  in  an  elbow,   to  which  a 
weight  was  attached  in  order  to  produce  an  equilibrium. 

The  first  Strasburg  clock  was  begun  in  1352,  and  completed  two  jears 
after,  by  John  Bishop,  of  Lichtenberg.  The  second  clock  was  begun  in 
'547)  ^y  I^i"-  Michael  Heer,  Nicholas  Bruckner  and  Christian  Herlin, 
professor  of  the  University  of  Strasburg,  and  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished mathematicians  of  his  time.  Owing  to  the  death  of  the  Col- 
leagues of  Herlin,  the   work  was   not  completed  until  1574.     I"  '570| 


Fig.  90. 


Conrad  Dasypodius,  a  disciple  of  Herlin,  reconstructed  it  on  a  larger 
scale.  The  mechanical  work  was  performed  by  Isaac  and  Josiah 
Habrecht,  clock-makers  of  Schaffhausen,  Switzerland.  This  clock,  which 
was  restored  in  1669,  by  Michael  Isaac  Habrecht,  grandson  of  Dasypo- 
dius, one  of  the  original  makers,  and  a  second  time  restored  by  James 
Straubharr,  in  1732,  ceased  to  act  in  1789.  The  present  Strasburg  clock 
was  commenced  June  24,  1838,  and  started  running  on  October  2,  1842. 
In  1370,  Charles  V.,  King  of  France,  caused  to  be  made  at  Paris,  a  large 


*Side  view  of  Time  Train.  B,  Barrel ;  C,  D,  E,  Plates;  F,  Ratchet  and  Click; 
G,  Great  Wheel;  P,  O,  Winding  Pinion  and  Wheel ;  H,  Second  Wheel ;  g,  Escape 
Pinion;  6,  Pinion  driving  Hour  Wheel;  N.  Hour  Wheel,  the  arbor  of  which  carries 
the  hand. 

iFront  view  of  Time  and  Striking  Train.  K,  Verge;  L,  Balance;  m,  Shifting 
Weights  for  adjusting  the  Clock  to  time;  N,  Count  Wheel  or  Locking  Plate;  T,  Lever 
for  letting  off  Striking  Work. 


Clocks. 


96 


turret  clock,  by  one  Henry  de  Vick,  (sometimes  spelled  De  Wyck),  a 
clockmaker  of  Wurtemburg.  He  took  eight  years  to  complete  the 
work.  John  Jouvance  cast  the  bell  on  which  the  hammer  of  the  clock 
struck  the  hours.  It  was  on  this  bell  the  signal  wa.<'  '^iven  for  the  mas- 
sacre of  Saint  Bartholomew.  1572. 

The  escape  wheel  of  this  clock  was  a  crown  wheel  which  acted  on  pal- 
lets attached  to  a  vertical  rod  or  axis,  moving  on  two  pivots;  the  balance, 

a  heavy  bar  of  iron,  was  fixed  to  the  upper 
p^rt  of  this  verge,  and  had  weights  placed 
at  corresponding  distances  on  each  arm  by 
means  of  a  number  of  equidistant  notches, 
in  order  to  regulate  its  vibrations.  The 
upper  end  of  the  verge  was  suspended  by  a 
small  cord,  to  a  cock  fixed  to  the  larger 
cock,  in  which  the  pivot  hole  was  pierced, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it  perpendicular 
and  decreasing  the  friction  of  the  lower 
pivot. 

In  1391,  a  clock  was  constructed  for  the 
Cathedral  of  Metz.  In  1401,  a  clock  was 
constructed  for  the  Cathedral  of  Seville. 

In  the  National  Horogical  Museum,  at 
Nuremburg,  Germany,  is  a  clock  which 
was  presented  to  the  museum  by  Gustav 
Speckhart,  the  court  watchmaker.  Speck- 
hart  estimates  that  it  was  made  between 
the  years  1400  and  1420,  and  is  therefore 
the  oldest  clock  in  the  city  of  Nuremburg. 
It  was  originally  located  upon  the  clock-tower  of  the  St.  Sebaldus 
Church,  and  indicated  the  hours  to  a  watchman,  who  thereupon 
announced  them  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  city  by  striking  upon  a  bell  in 
the  tower.  The  hammer  used  weighed  120  pounds,  and  was  introduced 
at  the  same  time  as  the  great  bell  Benedicta,  in  the  year  1392.  This 
clock  is  constructed  entirely  of  iron,  and  is  153^  inches  high.  The  dial, 
which  is  also  constructed  of  iron,  is  11  inches  in  diameter.  The  clock 
when  first  discovered  had  a  painted  dial  with  twelve  hours  upon  it,  but 
Speckhart  was  aware  that  this  was  not  the  original  dial  because  on  the 
outer  circumference  of  the  dial,  he  found  sixteen  nails,  one  with  a  sharp 
pointed  head,  corresponding  to  the  figure  12  and  fifteen  with  round 
heads.  On  carefully  removing  this  paint,  he  found  another  dial  with 
twelve  hours  recorded,  and  on  removing  this  he  came  upon  the  original 
dial  which  was  painted  with  sixteen  Roman  figures  of  a  gothic  form. 
The  original  division  of  the  day  and  night  was  into  16  hours,  since  the 

*Side  mew  of  Striking  Train.    F,  Weight;  A,  B,  Plates;  C,  Barrel;  c,  Pins  lor 
raisingf  the  hammer  tail;  L,  Fly;  /,  Pinion  for  driving-  Count  Wheel. 


Fig.  91*. 


97 


Clocks. 


longest  day,  as  well  as  the  longest  night,  has  sixteen  hours.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  the  nails  were  used  by  the  watchman  in  determining  the  hour 
without  the  use  of  a  light,  and  that  he  first  sought  the  nail  with  the  point, 
then  fell  downwards,  counting  the  others,  until  he  arived  at  the  nail 
above  which  the  hand  rested.  When  the  day  was  divided  into  twice 
twelve  hours,  about  1560-1580,  the  old  hour  wheel  was  removed  and 


Fig.  92. 

replaced  by  a  new  one,  and  the  dial  was  repainted  to  correspond.  The 
clock  has  no  striking  work  proper,  but  as  shown  in  Fig.  g2,  is  provided 
with  a  kind  of  alarm,  which  after  each  hour,  rattles  the  hammer  to  and 
fro  on  a  bell,  to  call  the  attention  of  the  watchman.  The  motion  work 
consists  of  a  barrel  wheel  with  ninety-six  teeth;  a  vertical  wheel  with 
thirty-five  teeth,  and  a  five-leaf  pinion.  The  barrel  wheel  has  a  four- 
leaf  pinion,  seizing  into  forty-eight  teeth  of  the  hour  wheel.  In  the 
former  division  of  sixteen  hours  the  hour  wheel  had  sixty -four  teeth. 


Clocks.  98 

The  verge  is  suspended  by  a  cord,  and  in  lieu  of  a  balance,  is  provided 
with  a  horizental  toothed  bar,  on  the  ends  of  which  hang  two  small 
weights,  for  regulating  purposes.  The  winding  part  is  peculiar,  because, 
while  the  cord  with  the  heavy  weight  descends,  another  cord  with  a 
small  weight  winds  up  in  an  opposite  direction,  and  it  is  only  necessary 
to  draw  down  the  small  weight  in  order  to  wind  up  the  heavier. 

A  pin  a  is  inserted  in  the  barrel  wheel,  which  makes  one  revolution 
every  hour ;  this  pin  unlocks  the  lever  b  and  actuates  the  alarm ;  but  since 
it  was  thought  necessary ^to  prolong  the  alarm  for  about  one-quarter  of 
a  minute,  the  following  arrangement  was  introduced:  While  the  lever  b 
on  the  movable  part  c,  is  raised  up  by  the  pin  a,  it  liberates  the  wedge  </, 
which,  when  the  alarm  is  at  rest,  leans  on  the  lever  arm  e,  so  that  the 
alarm  wheel,  with  one  winding,  sets  the  hammer  into  activity.  Ordi- 
narily it  would  take  some  time  for  the  pin  a,  with  its  movable  part  c,  to 
pass  the  lever  3,  and  the  alarm  would  in  consequence  run  down  with  the 
first  ringing.  To  prevent  this,  the  angle  /  is  riveted  to  the  circumference 
of  the  alarm  wheel,  opposite  to  the  wedge  rf,  which  after  a  half  revolu- 
ion  of  said  wheel,  still  lifts  up  a  part  of  the  lever  arm  c,  so  that  the  part 
c  falls  downward  by  its  own  weight,  and  leaves  the  pin  a  free,  so  that  the 
lever  arm  e  again  assumes  its  place  upon  the  face  of  the  alarm  wheel,  and 
the  wedge  d,  in  its  further  half  revolution,  places  itself  against  it  in  order 
to  place  the  alarm  into  repose,  until  the  performance  is  again  repeated. 

An  astrological  clock,  bearing  the  date  1525,  is  in  the  museum  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,  London.  It  was  made  by  one  Jacob  Zech,  of 
Prague,  and  Nelthropp,  after  investigation,  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  was 
once  the  property  of  Sigismund  the  First,  King  of  Poland.  The  wheels 
of  this  clock  are  made  of  iron.  It  is  fitted  with  a  powerful  expansive 
spring,  coiled  in  a  drum  or  barrel,  and  has  a  hand-made  fusee  for  equal- 
izing the  variable  power.  The  balance  consists  of  an  iron  bar  carrying 
a  screw  at  each  of  the  ends,  with  tapped  weights  of  lead.  At  present  the 
barrel  is  connected  with  the  fusee  by  a  chain,  but  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  in  the  original  construction  a  catgut  or  cord  was  used. 
The  escapement  is  of  the  verge  and  crown  wheel  type. 

In  1532,  Henry,  the  Eighth,  presented  to  Anne  Boleyn,  on  their  mar- 
riage, a  clock  of  beautiful  construction  which  is  now  in  Windsor  Castle. 
There  is  a  clock  at  Hampton  Court  Palace  bearing  the  date  1540,  and  the 
initials  N.  O. 

There  is  a  clock  at  Berne,  Switzerland,  constructed  by  Gaspard  Brun- 
ner,  a  locksmith,  but  improved  and  repaired  by  Angely,  a  French  clock- 
maker,  in  1686. 

In  1758  James  Ferguson  invented  what  was  known  as  the  "Simple 
Clock."  Fig.  93  illustrates  the  dial  and  wheel  work  of  this  clock.  It 
showed  the  hours,  minutes  and  seconds,  by  means  of  only  three  wheels 
and  two  pinions.  The  great  wheel  contained  120  teeth  and  turned 
around  in  twelve  hours,  and  on  its  axis  was  the   plate   on   which   the 


99 


Clocks. 


twelve  hours  were  engraved.  This  wheel  turned  a  pinion  of  ten  leaves 
and  the  minute  hand  was  on  the  axis  of  this  pinion.  On  this  axis  was 
also  a  wheel  of  120  teeth  which  geared  into  a  pinion  of  six  leaves,  and  on 
the  axis  of  this  pinion  was  a  wlieel  of  90  teeth,  going  around  in  three 
minutes  and  keeping  a  pendulum  in  motion  that  vibrated  seconds,   bv 


OUL- PLATE. 


Fig.  93. 

pallets,  as  in  a  common  clock,  where  the  scape  wheel  has  thirty  teetli 
and  revolves  in  a  minute.  As  this  wheel  only  revolved  in  three  minutes 
it  was  necessary,  in  order  to  show  the  seconds,  that  a  thin  plate  be  fastened 
to  the  axis  and  divided  into  180  equal  parts,  and  divided  as  shown  in  the 
illustration,  10,  20,  30,  40,  50,  60 ;  10,  20,  30,  etc. 

Annual  and  400  Day  Clocks.  These  clocks  are  made  to  run  much 
longer  than  usual  with  one  winding,  by  simply  interposing  a  number  of 
gears  and  pinions  between  the  barrel  and  the  usual  train,  and  using  a 
longer  and  stronger  spring  to  overcome  the  increased  friction  in  the 
train.  These  clocks  are  usually  provided  with  torsion  pendulums.  Tliey 
are  made  chieflly  as  curiosities. 

Astronomical  Clock.  A  clock  having  twenty-four  hours  shown  on 
the  dial  and  a  pendulum  of  such  length  as  to  show  stellar  time,  which  is 
three  minutes,  fifty-six  seconds  shorter  than  the  mean  solar  day.  Also 
called  sidereal  clock. 

2.  A  clock,  or  orrery,  showing  the  comparative  motion  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  by  means  of  concentric  discs,  rotating  proportionately  on  a  central 
arbor  whkl'  *lso  carries  the  ordinary  clock  hands. 


Clocks. 


100 


Calendar  Clock.  A  clock  which  shows  the  progress  of  the  calendar. 
In  a  simple  calendar  the  mechanism  has  to  be  adjusted  at  the  end  of 
all  months  having  less  than  thirty-one  days.  In  a  perpetual  calendar 
the  correct  indications  during  short  months  and  leap  years  are  per- 
formed without  adjustment. 

Carriage  Clock.  A  European  term  for  a  clock  having  a  balance 
instead  of  a  pendulum,  so  as  to  be  readily  portable. 

Chiming  Clock.  A  clock  which  plays  tunes  on  bells,  rods  or  by 
connection  with  a  musical  box.  Church  clocks  are  often  arranged  to 
chime  on  bells,  while  mantel  clocks  are  generally  connected  with  a 


-"«» 

mimmim 

k!^^^^^Kb  J^^^j^^DkK  wT^-'"  ' 

WR  tflHHF'' '             ^tM 

■;■» 
**• 

imI  ^mtKsBBBB 

Fig.  94. 

music  box.  Fig.  94  illustrates  a  chiming  clock  made  by  Eardley 
Norton,  a  celebrated  maker  of  musical  clocks,  who  carried  on  busi- 
ness in  London  from  1765  10  1800. 

Clock  Watch.    A  watch  which  automatically  strikes  the  hours. 

Electric  Clock.  A  clock  operated  by  a  weight  or  spring  and  having 
a  pendulum,  which  is  controlled  by  electrical  currents  transmitted 
automatically  by  a  master  clock.  2.  A  clock  in  which  the  winding  is 
performed  by  electricity,  by  means  of  a  motor  placed  in  the  case. 
Fig.  95  illustrates  the  mechanism  of  an  electric  clock  made  by  Mr. 
F.  Lorenz,  which  has  many  novel  features  to  recommend  it.    It  con- 


101 


Clocks 


sists  of  a  brass,  German  silver,  or  other  metal  back  plate  A,  made 
sufficiently  heavy  to  support  the  entire  weight  of  the  movement  and 
pendulum  in  a  proper  manner.  The  pendulum,  which  beats  seconds, 
is  supported  by  an  arm  B,  in  the  usual  manner,  and  is  composed  of 


Fig.  95. 

steel  rods  CC,  held  by  brass  bars  DD,  and  adapted  to  carry  glass 
jars  of  mercury,  with  a  rating  nut  at  the  lower  end,  in  the  usual  form. 
A  three-ohm  electro-magnet  £  is  suspended  from  the  upper  part  of 
the  plate  as  shown,  and  beneath  it  is  an  armature  i%  which  is  carried 
on  a  pivoted  lever  having  a  counter  balance  weight  G,  at  one  end 


Clocks.  102 

and  an  impulse  weight  H,  at  the  other.  An  adjusting  screw  is  pro- 
vided beneath  the  armature  to  retain  it  within  the  influence  of  the 
magnet.  Attached  to  the  bar  D,  of  the  pendulum  and  oscillating 
with  it,  is  an  adjusting  screw  /,  which  receives  the  blow  from  the 
impulse  weight  H,  and  imparts  the  momentum  to  the  pendulum. 
This  weight,  which  weighs  thirteen  pennyweights,  is  suspended  from 
the  armature  lever  by  a  silk  cord,  and  acts  upon  the  pendulum  every 
58,  60,  62  or  64  seconds,  according  to  the  amount  of  pressure  in  the 
atmosphere.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  plate  is  shown  the  escapement. 
The  bar  J,  is  carried  upon  the  pendulum  rods,  and  has  at  its  center 
a  pillar  which  carries  a  ruby  jewel,  having  a  groove  cut  in  its  face  at 
right  angles  to  the  plane  in  which  the  pendulum  swings.  Beneath 
this  is  an  oscillating  lever  L,  carried  upon  an  arbor  which  is  fitted  in 
jeweled  holes  in  a  pair  of  upright  plates  M.  This  lever  is  made  of 
gold,  tipped  with  irridium,  (the  hardest  known  metal),  and  has  its 
lower  end  enlarged  to  form  a  disc  about  the  center  of  the  arbor. 
Upon  this  disc  are  placed  two  guard  pins  which  prevent  the  uncoil- 
ing of  the  hairsprings.  At  suitable  points  in  the  plate  M,  are  placed 
two  banking  pins  which  prevent  the  lever  from  moving  too  far  by 
striking  against  the  projecting  outer  ends  of  the  hairsprings.  The 
hairsprings  are  mounted  on  the  arbor  so  that  one  coils  to  the  right 
and  the  other  to  the  left,  and  are  so  adjusted  that  the  recoil  of  either 
will  throw  the  oscillating  lever  to  the  same  side  as  that  upon  which 
the  spring  is  coiled.  Thus,  when  the  jewel  is  carried  past  the  lever 
it  presses  upon  it  sufficiently  to  coil  one  hairspring  so  that  the  recoil 
will  reverse  the  lever.  On  the  return  motion,  the  reverse  happens, 
and  this  is  kept  up  until  the  arc  of  the  pendulum  has  decreased  so 
much  that  the  jewel  is  no  longer  carried  past  the  lever.  When  this 
occurs,  the  irridium  point  of  the  lever  enters  the  groove  of  the  jewel 
and  the  momentum  of  the  pendulum  pushes  the  plates  M  and  the 
spring  bar /T  downward,  out  of  its  path,  thus  making  electrical  con- 
tact between  the  spring  bars  A' and  N,  and  closmg  the  circuit,  which 
operates  the  magnet  E,  the  armature  F,  and  the  impulse  weight  H, 
and  gives  renewed  impulse  to  the  pendulum.  Attached  to  the  center 
of  the  pendulum  bar  D,  is  a  lever  Q,  carrying  at  its  lower  end  a  roller 
jewel  which  works  in  the  fork  R,  to  operate  two  pawls  which  are 
hung  eccentrically  upon  the  fork  arbor,  and  actuate  a  ratchet  wheel 
S,  with  30  teeth.  The  ratchet  wheel  arbor  carries  on  its  outer  end  a 
pinion  which  meshes  with  the  hour  and  minute  wheels  in  the  usual 
manner,  and  also  bears  the  seconds  hand.  As  the  length  of  the 
pawls  is  such  that  the  ratchet  wheel  moves  one-half  tooth  at  each 
vibration  of  the  pendulum,  this  gives  a  center-seconds  motion  direct 
from  the  ratchet  wheel  arbor.  The  clock  is  operated  by -two  cells  of 
sal  ammoniac  battery,  the  wires  from  which  enter  the  case  and  are 
passed  behind  the  back  plate  by  means  of  binding  screws  as  shown. 


103  Clocks. 

The  current  enters  on  the  wire  T,  and  is  conveyed  to  the  spring 
bar  A',  through  the  insulated  arm  as  shown.  This  arm,  which  carries 
the  oscillating  lever  L,  is  adjusted  so  as  to  remain  .3  mm.  from  the 
arm  A'',  which  is  similarly  insulated  and  from  which  runs  the  wire  O, 
connecting  with  the  magnet  E.  A  wire  P,  is  connected  with  an 
adjusting  screw  which  presses  upon  the  bar  N,  and  the  points  of  con- 
tact upon  the  bars  A' and  A^  are  tipped  with  platinum.  When  K  is 
depressed  by  the  pendulum  acting  on  the  lever,  the  circuit  runs 
through  T,  K,  N,  Pand  O  for  about  .01  second;  then  as  the  depres- 
sion continues,  A^  is  removed  entirely  from  the  contact  with /",  and 
the  entire  current  follows  the  line  T,  K,  N,  O.  This  prevents  spark- 
ing between  K  and  A^,  and  also  prevents  induced  currents  in  the 
magnet.  The  important  feature  of  this  clock,  aside  from  its  simpli- 
city, is  that  the  arc  of  the  pendulum  cannot  decrease  beyond  that  for 
which  it  is  adjusted,  as  the  action  of  the  impulse  weight  and  oscillat- 
ing lever  cannot  vary,  which  feature  renders  the  timekeeping  quali- 
ties of  this  clock  far  superior  to  that  of  any  weight  clock. 

Equatorial  Clock.     A  clock  which  drives  an  equatorial  telescope. 

Equation  Clock.  A  clock  invented  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  which  contained  a  device  for  partially  rotating  the  dial,  so 
as  to  make  the  length  of  the  day  indicated  by  the  clock,  coincide  with 
that  of  the  solar  day. 

Locomotive  Clock.  A  clock  adapted  to  be  carried  in  the  cab  of  a 
locomotive,  and  so  constructed  as  to  withstand  the  jarring  and  heat 
variations  of  the  temperature.  They  are  usually  made  with  detached 
lever  escapement,  jeweled,  like  a  watch,  and  compensated  for  tem- 
perature. 

Master  Clock.  A  clock  which  is  carefully  regulated  and  used  to 
correct  others,  by  electricity  or  otherwise.  2.  The  original  clock 
model  from  which  others  are  made. 

Pneumatic  Clock.  One  of  a  series  of  clocks  governed  by  pulsations 
of  air,  sent  to  them  at  regular  intervals  through  tubes  which  are  con- 
trolled and  operated  by  a  master  clock. 

Repeating  Clock.  The  mechanism  by  which  a  clock  or  watch  may 
be  made  to  strike  the  hours  and  minutes  by  pulling  or  pushing  a  cord 
or  rod,  so  as  to  tell  the  time  without  looking  at  the  dial,  was  invented 
in  1676  by  Wm.  Derham.  It  immediately  became  popular,  and  the 
idea  was  taken  up  by  many  English,  French  and  German  horologists. 
It  was  at  first  applied  only  to  clocks,  but  was  subsequently  put  into 


Clocks.  104 

watches  as  well,  and  forms  the  origin  of  the  repeating  watches  of  the 
present  day. 

Watchman's  Clock.  A  clock  having  a  paper  dial,  which  is  used 
to  control  the  movements  of  a  watchman  by  means  of  keys  fastened 
to  short  chains  at  various  portions  of  his  beat.  The  various  keys 
operate  variously  shaped  punches  which  perforate  the  dial,  and  thus 
show  the  time  of  his  presence  at  any  particular  station. 

Clock  Repairing  and  Cleaning.  Of  all  timekeeping  mechan- 
isms, the  ordinary  household  clock  has  probably  passed  through 
the  greatest  variety  of  experiences,  from  that  bordering  on  the 
mysterious  down  to  those  when  the  watchmaker's  apprentice  for 
the  first  time  attempts  to  make  the  thing  go.  How  fearfully  and 
wonderfully  the  clock  is  made,  is  now,  to  him,  for  the  first  time  a 
stern  reality,  a  thing  which  must  be  conquered  and  subdued.  While 
the  clock,  as  a  rule,  is  stronger  and  consequently  can  withstand 
the  rough  handling  of  an  apprentice,  his  efforts  should,  however  be 
guided  by  an  experienced  hand.  When  a  clock  is  brought  in  for 
repairs  the  first  thing  is  to  examine  the  movement  thoroughly,  either 
before  or  immediately  after  removing  it  from  the  case,  according  to 
the  style  of  clock,  and  in  which  position  the  examination  can  be  best 
conducted.  If,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  a  clock  has  been  running 
for  some  time,  and  is  so  dirty  that  a  satisfactory  examination  cannot 
be  made,  it  should  be  cleaned,  to  permit  of  examining,  by  the  use  of 
gasoline,  which  will  quickly  remove  the  old  oil  and  dirt.  If  many 
repairs  are  necessary,  a  list  of  them  should  be  written  down  on  a 
piece  of  paper,  so  that  nothing  may  be  overlooked  when  it  comes  to 
doing  the  actual  work  of  repairing.  When  examining  the  movement 
it  should  be  noticed  that  all  the  wheels  are  free,  the  depthings  correct 
and  the  wear  on  the  pivots  and  pivot  holes,  which  if  excessive  must 
be  corrected  by  refinishing  the  pivots  and  bushing  the  holes.  Some- 
times a  new  pivot,  or  perhaps  a  new  arbor  will  be  needed  to  correct 
the  fault  entirely.  Having  examined  the  train,  the  escapement  must 
be  carefully  scrutinized,  as  it  is  here  that  any  slight  inaccuracies  or 
wear  will  be  the  most  detrimental.  The  pivots  of  the  escapement 
shou'ld  fit  the  hole  with  only  a  sufficient  amount  of  play  for  freeedom. 
Notice  if  the  pallets  are  pitted  even  slightly,  and  if  they  are  it  will 
be  necessary  to  regrind  and  polish  them  so  as  to  leave  them  perfectly 
smooth.  The  escapement  should  be  set  as  close  as  possible,  noting 
that  the  drops  are  equal  upon  each  pallet.  Notice  the  teeth  of  the 
escape  wheel  that  they  are  not  bent,  a  fault  very  likely  to  occur  with 
some  forms  of  teeth.  Where  the  crutch  strikes,  the  pendulum  rod 
should  be  examined,  and  if  worn  i*  must  be  smoothed  off.  The 
crutch  itself  should  fit  the  rod  freely,  but  without  play.     If  the  clock 


106  Clocks. 

is  regulated  from  the  front,  and  has  a  slide  working  along  the  sus- 
pension spring,  this  slide  should  fit  the  spring  accurately,  so  that 
while  there  is  no  binding  there  is  no  lost  motion.  If  the  action  of  the 
striking  train  is  correct  each  pair  of  wheels  and  pinions  may  be 
marked  by  a  small  dot,  so  that  after  the  movement  is  taken  apart  the 
pieces  may  be  assembled  as  before.  If  it  is  a  spring  clock  the  main- 
spring must  be  let  down  before  the  movement  is  taken  apart.  The 
above  general  remarks  apply  equally  well  to  all  kinds  of  clocks,  but 
in  addition  to  these  there  are  several  kinds,  a  full  description  of  which 
would  be  beyond  the  range  of  this  book,  since  the  matter  necessary 
for  a  complete  description  would  be  sufficient  for  a  separate  volume, 
consequently  we  must  advise  that  the  action  of  the  mechanism  be 
studied  until  thoroughly  understood  before  attempting  to  repair  any 
of  the  more  complicated  clocks.  A  great  many  workmen  are  con- 
tent to  immerse  the  parts  of  the  movement  in  benzine  or  gasoline 
(which  is  about  the  same  thing  as  usually  sold),  but  the  substance, 
while  good  for  removing  the  old  oil,  does  not  leave  the  parts  in  good 
condition  for  the  preservation  of  the  oil,  a  very  necessary  and 
important  thing,  sometimes  giving  trouble  even  with  the  greatest 
possible  care. 

In  the  better  grades  of  clocks  the  same  care  should  be  exercised 
as  in  cleaning  a  watch.  Have  the  pivots  and  pivot  holes  thoroughly 
cleaned,  if  the  cleaning  is  done  by  benzine,  so  as  to  remove 
every  trace  of  it  from  them.  The  mainspring,  if  the  clock  has  one, 
must  be  cleaned  and  the  old  and  gummy  oil  removed  thoroughly. 
When  a  clock  is  running  a  noise  is  sometimes  heard  which  is  caused 
by  the  coils  of  the  mainspring  sticking  together  on  account  of  the  old 
oil  which  has  become  so  gummy  as  to  absorb  a  good  portion  of  its 
power,  and  as  the  spring  unwinds,  the  coils  slip  upon  each  other. 
When  the  mainspring  is  mounted  in  a  barrel  it  should  be  tested  to 
see  that  it  is  true  by  twirling  it  upon  its  arbor.  If  the  test  shows  it 
to  be  untrue,  one  or  both  of  the  holes  should  be  bushed  and  up- 
righted.  The  teeth  of  the  various  wheels  must  be  examined  to  see 
if  any  are  bent.  The  depthings  must  be  correct,  and  this  maybe 
tested,  by  putting  the  one  which  is  suspected  in  the  plates  and  by 
holding  a  piece  of  pegwood  upon  the  pinion  arbor  so  as  to  make  it 
turn  quite  hard,  the  correctness  of  it  when  the  power  of  the  main- 
spring is  on  may  be  judged.  In  cleaning  French  or  other  clocks  where 
the  brass  is  polished  and  has  become  tarnished,  the  brass  may  be 
cleaned  by  using  a  stiff  clock  brush  moistened  in  a  solution  of  cyan- 
ide of  potassium  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  ounce  of  the 
cyanide  to  a  quart  of  water.  After  the  brush  is  moistened  dip  it  in 
prepared  chalk  or  other  good  polishing  powder,  and  by  brushing  the 
tarnish  may  be  easily  removed.  Another  brush  should  be  at  hand 
which  is  perfectly  dry  and  clean,  with  which  follow  the  cyanide  brushy 


Club  Tooth.  1C6 

for  if  the  solution  is  too  strong,  or  is  left  on  too  long,  the  action  of  the 
cyanide  on  the  brass  will  be  to  blacken  it,  thus  the  work  will  be  no 
better  than  it  was  before.  The  teeth  of  the  wheels  and  the  leaves  of 
the  pinions,  if  rough  or  rusted,  should  each  be  carefully  polished  and 
cleaned.  It  is  certainly  a  disgusting  sight  to  see  a  movement  that  is 
well  made  and  polished  left  covered  with  finger  marks  and  tarnish 
which  has  become  so  thoroughly  fixed  as  to  be  very  difficult  to 
remove.  No  workman  who  is  at  all  worthy  of  the  name  of  watch  or 
clockmaker  should  think  for  a  moment  of  allowing  such  a  job  to 
leave  his  hands.  When  putting  the  movement  together,  after  the 
various  pieces  are  in  place,  the  top  plate  may  be  put  on  and  held 
loosely  in  place  by  a  screw  or  pin  in  one  of  the  pillars.  When  the 
movement  is  in  the  case  it  should  be  set  upon  a  level  place  and  the 
escapement  adjusted  until  the  beats  are  equal.  After  the  clock  is 
set  up  it  is  to  be  timed,  and  if  at  first  there  is  any  great  gain,  it  may 
be  corrected  at  once,  but  after  it  runs  for  some  time  with  no  percepti- 
ble variation,  it  should  be  allowed  to  run  a  longer  and  longer  period 
of  time,  until  it  runs  from  one  winding  to  another  before  making  an 
alteration,  this  being  especially  so  when  the  motive  power  is  a  spring, 
as  these  will  vary  between  windings. 

CLOCKMAKERS' COMPANY.  In  163 1  the  clockmakers  resid- 
ing within  the  liberties  and  suburbs  of  the  city  of  London  petitioned  the 
crown  for  a  charter  incorporating  all  the  clockmakers,  both  free  and 
foreign,  who  practiced  clockmaking  in  the  city  of  London,  and  ten 
miles  compass,  by  the  name  of  the  Master,  Wardens,  and  Fellowship 
of  the  art  or  mystery  of  clockmaking  of  the  City  of  London,  consi- 
tuting  them  one  body  corporate  and  politic  in  deed  and  name,  to  have 
and  continue  forever. 

CLUB  TOOTH.  The  form  of  tooth  shown  in  Fig.  223  and  for  lever 
escape  wheels,  having  a  part  of  the  impulse  angle  on  the  tooth. 
See  Lever  Escapejuent. 

CLUTCH.  A  mechanism  for  connecting  two  shafts  with  each 
other,  or  with  wheels,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be  readily  dis- 
engaged. 

COCK.  The  horizontal  bracket  which  holds  the  end  of  a  staff. 
A  vertical  or  hang-down  bracket  is  called  a  potance.  See  Bal- 
ance Bridge. 

COLE,  JAMES  FERGUSON.  An  able  watchmaker  and  expert 
springer  of  London.  He  devoted  considerable  attention  to  the  lever 
escapement,  and  devised  several  forms  of  it.  He  was  born  in  1799 
and  died  in  1880. 


107  Collet. 

COLLET.  A  collar  or  band  of  metal.  2.  A  small  collar  fitted  fric- 
tion tight  to  the  balance  staff,  and  which  is  slotted  to  receive  the  lower 
end  of  the  hairspring.  3.  The  part  of  a  ring  in  which  a  stone  is  set.  4. 
The  under  side  of  a  brilliant  cut  stone. 

COLLET  WRENCH.  A  tool  for  twisting  a  hairspring  collet  to 
position,  which  consists  of  a  metal  handle,  hollow  at  the  extremity  for 
the  reception  of  the  pivot,  and  having  a  minute  wedge-shaped  projec- 
tion from  its  face,  which  enters  the  slit  in  the  collet,  allowing  it  to  be 
turned  readily. 

COLORING  GOLD  ARTICLES.  See  Cleansing,  Pickling  and 
Polishing, 

COMPASS.  An  instrument  consisting  of  a  magnetized  needle 
turning  freely  on  a  point,  used  to  determine  horizontal  directions  in  ref- 
erence to  the  cardinal  points. 

COMPASSES.  An  instrument  for  measuring  figures,  describing 
circles,  etc.,  consisting  of  two  pointed  limbs  usually  pivoted  together  at 
the  top. 

COMPENSATION  The  correction  of  the  eflfect  of  variations  of 
temperature  on  the  vibrations  of  the  balance  or  pendulum.  The  first 
person,  says  Nelthrop,  who  seems  to  have  observed  that  metals  changed 
their  length,  by  changes  of  temperature,  was  Godfroi  Wendelinus,  Canon 
of  Conde,  in  Flanders,  about  the  year  1648.  John  Ellicott,  a  watchmaker 
of  London,  invented  a  pyrometer,  for  testing  the  expansions  and  con- 
traction of  metals,  about  1740.  About  the  year  1715,  Graham  endeavored 
to  make  a  pendulum  rod  that  should  counteract  the  effect  of  heat  and 
cold,  but  did  not  succeed.  In  1722  he  made  a  clock  with  a  mercurial 
pendulum,  or  rather,  instead  of  a  metal  bob  he  used  a  vase  filled  with 
mercury  which  he  attached  to  the  end  of  the  rod,  which  proved  quite 
successful  and  was  the  first  attempt  at  compensation.  In  1726,  Harrison 
completed  his  gridiron  pendulum,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  he  was  the 
first  to  apply  compensation  to  the  balance  of  a  watch,  which  he  did  in 
1 749 ;  but  as  there  is  no  written  evidence,  the  honor  was  claimed  by  F. 
Berthoud,  who  in  1766  made  a  watch  with  compensation  balance,  for 
Pinchbeck,  a  London  watchmaker,  for  his  majesty  George  III.  Nel- 
throp thus  describes  it:  The  compensation  piece  was  made  of  brass  and 
steel  pinned  together;  one  end  was  fixed  to  the  fore-plate,  the  other  was 
made  to  act  on  a  short  arm  projecting  from  a  movable  arbor;  a  longer 
arm,  having  the  curb  pins  in  it,  moved  nearly  in  the  circle  of  the  outer 
coil  of  the  spiral  spring.  Mudge  invented  a  compensation  for  heat  and 
cold,  which  he  applied  to  his  time  keepers.  His  system  was  more  sim- 
ple than  that  invented  by  Berthoud,  but  acted  in  the  same  manner  on 
the  spiral  spring.     lie  applied  it  in  1774  to  a  watch.     Abraham  Breguet 


Compensation  Balance. 


108 


invented  and  applied  to  his  watches  a  V-shaped  compensation  curb, 
made  to  correspond  in  a  great  measure  with  the  circumference  of  the 
balance.  Nelthrop  describes  it  as  a  curb  being  made  of  brass  and 
steel,  the  brass  being  inside,  and  so  arranged,  by  being  screwed  on  to 
the  extremity  of  the  regulating  index,  that  the  balance-spring  vibrated 
between  one  end  of  it,  formed  into  a  heel,  and  a  fixed  pin.  The  action 
was  simple:  in  cold  weather  the  space  between  the  heel  of  the  com- 
pensation curb  and  the  pin,  became  enlarged,  through  the  contraction 
of  the  compound  laminas;  consequently  the  balance-spring  had  more 
room  to  vibrate  in.  In  warm  weather  the  laminae  expanded,  thereby 
reducing  the  space,  and  contracting  the  expansion  of  the  spring, 
The  defect  in  this  curb  was  the  difficulty  of  adjustment,  which  caused 
it  to  be  abandoned. 

Arnold  also  made  experiments  in  order  to  try  and  obtain  compen- 
sation and  finally  adopted  a  method  entirely  dissimilar  to  the  others 
by  placing  the  compensation  in  the  balance  alone.  Arnold  was  fol- 
lowed by  Earnshaw,  who  in  1802  invented  a  balance  not  unlike  those 
in  use  today. 

COMPENSATION  BALANCE.  A  balance  of  a  watch  or  chro- 
nometer which  compensates  the  effect  of  variations  of  temperature 
on  the  vibrations  of  the  balance.    See  Balance. 

Mr.  Richard  Lange  made  a  series  of  balances  which  are  herewith 
illustrated,  which  give  a  clearer  view  of  the  disadvantages  worked 
under  by  the  pioneer  experimentors.     In  the  balance  shown  at  A,  Fig. 


Fig.  96. 


96  the  flat  rim  is  made  of  brass,  the  arm  A  of  aluminum,  the  compen- 
sating arm  Z  is  of  zinc.  The  balance  rim  is  united  to  the  arm  at  a 
either  by  rivets  or  pivots,  similar  rivets  b  b  form  the  connection  for 
the  compensating  arm;  they  are  placed  quite  close  to  a  a.  In  heat 
the  zinc  arm /?  will  expand  much  more  than  the  aluminum  arm  ^, 
and  cause  the  rim  to  move  inwardly,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  line. 
Both  arms,  A  and  Z  in  this  case  of  are  equal  length;  the  regulation 


109 


Compensation  Balance. 


of  the  compensation  is  effected  by  a  change  of  position  of  the 
adjusting  screws. 

At  B,  Fig.  96  the  action  of  the  compensation  is  increased  in  that  the 
compensating  arms  Z Z,  also  of  zinc  are  made  double  the  length  of 
the  balance  arm  5*.  This  is  accomplished  by  attaching  to  the  arm 
Z,  with  screws,  cross-pieces,  </</,  of  brass,  to  which  are  immovably 
fastened  the  ends  of  the  compensating  arms  Z  Z;  a  a  are  the  pivots 
of  the  balance  rim,  b  b  the  pivots  to  the  joints  to  the  compensating 
arms.  The  results  are  similar,  but  more  effective  than  shown  by 
A,  as  by  the  greater  expansion  of  the  compensating  arms  with  an 
increased  temperature  the  rim  will  be  deflected  inwardly,  as  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines.  The  regulation  is  also  effected  by  a  change  of 
position  of  the  balance  screws.  • 

Experiments  with  this  balance  proved  that  the  compensating 
action  was  still  insufficient,  and  at  A,  Fig,  97  is  shown  a  balance  in 
which  this  action  is  further  increased.     This  balance  closely  resem- 


FLg.  97. 


bias  the  one  shown  at  B,  Fig.  96,  the  compensating  pieces  are  made  of 
zinc  and  rigidly  connected  with  the  balance  arms  and  the  sectional 
piece  /?.  The  balance  rims,  A  A,  will  operate  in  like  manner  in  heat 
and  cold  as  those  at  B,  Fig.  96.  But  the  sectional  pieces  in  this  case  are 
lengthened  and  composed  of  two  metals,  the  inner  of  steel  and  the 
outer  of  brass,  and  they  are  also  provided  with  tapped  holes  for  the 
attachment  of  weights.  In  consequence  of  this  form  of  construction 
of  the  sectional  pieces  7?  7?,  a  compensating  action  will  take  place, 
inasmuch  as  their  free  ends  with  their  screws,  if  such  are  required, 
will  during  an  increase  of  temperature,  take  an  inward  direction, 
while  an  opposite  action  is  produced  with  a  fall  of  temperature. 
This  style  of  balance  can  therefore  be  termed  an  auxiliary  compen- 
sation balance.  The  compensation  is  effected  by,  ist,  a  change  of 
position  of  the  adjusting  screws  on  the  balance  r\ms,AA;  2nd,  by 
moving  the  auxiliary  screws  on  7?  i?  to  a  different  place,  or  making 
them  either  heavier  or  lighter. 


Compensation  Balance. 


110 


B,  Fig.  97,  illustrates  a  balance  with  shiftable  weights.  Here  the 
inner  arm  M,  and  the  rims  are  made  of  brass;  gg  are  the  pivotal 
connections  for  the  rims.  The  outer  compensating  arms  A  A,  are  of 
aluminum,  and  one  of  the  ends  is  screwed  to  the  arm  M,  the  other 
is  pivotally  attached  to  the  rim,  forming  a  movable  joint.  In  this 
style  the  compensating  arms  will  tend  to  draw  the  rims  inward,  as 
steel  has  a  greater  co-effit-ient  of  expansion  than  aluminum,  there- 
fore the  joint  i>,  will  be  drawn  towards  the  inner  side  of  g.  This 
balance  also  shows  another  interesting  novelty.  The  outer  ends  J^J^, 
of  the  arm  M,  are  made  broad  and  thin,  thus  ensuring  a  secure 
movement  of  the  slotted  ends  a  a,  of  the  rim. 

A  and  B,  Fig.  98,  show  two  forms  of  the  true  auxiliary  or  controlling 
compensation.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  the  usual  rim  com- 
pensation balance  its  action  in  the  higher  degrees  of  temperature  is 


Fig.  98, 


not  sufficient,  and  it  is  necessary  in  particular  cases  to  apply  auxili- 
ary means  to  accomplish  such  effects  in  progressive  stages.  This  is 
usually  done  by  means  of  small  levers. 

A,  Fig.  98,  shows  the  lowe  side  of  a  balance  so  constructed.  At  the 
extreme  ends  of  the  balance  rims  there  are  small  movable  brass 
arms  c  c.  The  outer  ends  of  these  arms  have  cross-pieces  h  h,  form- 
ing a  continuation  of  the  rims,  and  are  provided  with  screws.  The 
balance  arm  S,  is  made  of  steel;  the  rim  is  made  in  the  customary 
way,  steel  on  the  inside  and  brass  outside.  On  the  upper  and  outer  sides 
of  the  balance  arm  S,  are  two  broad  arched  brass  pieces  m  m,  pivot- 
ally  connected  at  a  a,  and  they  are  also  movably  attached  to  the  ends 
of  ^  <?  by  means  of  pivots.  With  a  considerable  increase  of  tempera- 
ture the  balance  rims  will  have  a  strong  inward  motion,  and  its 
influence  will  be  greater  on  the  sectional  pieces  h  h,  therefore  these 
latter  considerably  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the  compensation. 
In  the  middle  temperatures  the  movements  of  the  sectional  pieces 
^^,  in  a  radial  direction,  cannot  be  very  much,  as  the  connecting 
pivots  c  and  b,  in  the  middle  temperatures  have  the  same  radii. 


Ill  Compensation  Pendalum. 

At  B,  Fig.  98,  the  same  results  are  obtained,  but  in  a  different  way. 
The  balance  is  of  the  usual  brass-steel  pattern,  the  rim  being  cut 
near  each  of  the  arms.  At  the  inner  end  of  the  immovable  (short) 
rim  is  screwed  a  rather  long  elastic  spring  F,  having  at  its  free  end 
an  auxiliary  screw  C.  In  the  middle  temperatures  this  spring  is  so 
curved  as  to  just  come  in  contact  with  the  points  of  the  balance 
screws.  Nowj  if  the  balance  rims  are  strongly  curved  inwardly  in 
high  temperatures  the  point  of  the  last  screw  at  a  will  move  the 
spring  F,  and  the  auxiliary  screw  c,  and  as  the  screw  c,  whose  dis- 
tance from  a  is  about  three  times  that  between  a  and  b,  it  can  be 
readily  seen  that  the  free  end  of  the  auxiliary  will  increase  threefold 
any  movement  of  the  balance  rims  at  a,  in  cojisequence  of  which  the 
compensatory  action  is  greatly  increased. 

COMPENSATION  PENDULUM.  A  pendulum  in  which  the 
effect  of  changes  of  tempereture  on  the  length  of  the  rod  is  so  coun- 
teracted that  the  distance  of  the  center  of  oscillation  from  the  center 
of  suspension  remains  invariable. 

COMPENSATION  CURB.  A  bar  composed  of  two  metals,  usu- 
ally brass  and  steel,  free  to  act  at  one  end  but  retained  at  the  other, 
the  free  end  carrying  the  curb  pins  that  regulate  the  acting  length  of 
a  hairspring.  Not  used  in  American  watches  and  found  only  in 
old  watches  of  European  make. 

CONCAVE.  The  internal  surface  of  a  hollow  a  rounded  body. 
The  reverse  of  convex. 

CONICAL  PENDULUM.  A  pendulum  whose  bob  moves  in  a 
circle.     See  Pendiibmt. 

CONICAL  PIVOT.  A  pivot  whose  shoulders  are  of  conical  form 
used  only  in  pivots  having  end  stones.    See  Balance  Staff, 

CONOIDAL.     Having  the  form  of  a  cone. 

CONTRATE  WHEEL.  A  crown  wheel.  A  wheel  whose  teeth 
are  set  at  right  angles  to  its  plane  and  used  ordinarily  as  a  gear  wheel 
for  transmitting  power  from  one  shaft  to  another,  standing  at  right 
angles  to  it.    The  escape  wheel  of  the  verge  escapement. 

CONVERSION.  A  term  in  watchmaking  signifying  that  a  change 
of  escapement  is  made,  as  a  movement  originally  having  a  duplex 
escapement  is  changed  to  a  lever  escapemenL 


Convex.  112 

CONVEX.  Rising  or  swelling  into  a  rounded  body.  The  reverse  of 
concave. 

CONVEXO-CONCAVE.  Convex  on  one  side  and  concave  on  the 
other. 

CONVEXO-CONVEX.     Convex  on  both  sides. 

COPPER.  A  metal  of  a  reddish  color,  malleable,  ductile  and  ten- 
acious. It  fuses  at  2,000°  Fah.  and  has  a  specific  gravity  varying  from 
8.8  to  8.9.  It  has  a  breaking  strain  of  48,000  lbs.  per  square  inch.  In 
horology  it  is  employed  as  a  backing  for  enameled  watch  dials ;  in  the 
construction  of  gridiron  compensation  pendulums;  in  the  manufacture 
of  compensation  balances,  etc.  When  mixed  with  tin  it  forms  bell-metal 
and  bronze  and  with  zinc  it  forms  brass  and  other  alloys.     See  Alloys. 

CORUNDUM.  The  earth  alumina,  as  found  native  in  a  crystalline 
state,  including  sapphire,  which  is  the  fine  blue  variety ;  the  oriental 
ruby  or  red  sapphire ;  the  oriental  amethyst,  or  purple  sapphire.  It  is  the 
hardest  known  substance  next  to  the  diamond.  The  non -transparent 
variety,  dark-colored  and  granular  is  known  as  emery.     See  Carborundum. 

CORUNDUM-WHEELS.  Wheels  faced  with  corundum,  (emery) 
or  made  of  a  composition  of  corundum  and  cement.     See  Emery  Wheels. 

COUNTER  BALANCE.     A  mass  of  metal  placed  on  the  opposite 

side  of  a  wheel  to  that  to 
which  a  crank  is  attached  to 
compensate  for  the  weight 
of  the  latter. 

COUNTERMARK.    A 

mark  attached  to  gold  and 
silver- ware  of  English  make 
to  attest  its  standard.  See 
Hcdl  Mark. 

COUNTERSHAFT.  A 
short  shafting  mounted  on 
two  uprights,  used  exten- 
sively by  American  watch- 
makers. It  is  indispensable 
in  using  milling  tools,  wheel 
FUj.  m.  cutters,  and  pivot  polishers. 

Fig.  99  illustrate*   one  of  several   patterns  of  countershafts  used   by 
watchmakers.     In  some  of  the  patterns  the  uprights  extend  through  the 


113 


Countersink. 


top  of  the  bench  and  are  held  firmly  in  place  by  means  of  nuts  or 
thumb  screws.  The  pattern  shown  in  the  illustration  is  mounted  on 
a  solid  metal  base  which  can  be  fastened  to  the  bench  by  means  of 
screws.  The  advanteges  of  using  a  countershaft  are  three  fold;  first, 
you  are  able  to  regulate  your  speed  perfectly;  second,  your  belt  is 
carried  to  the  back  of  the  bench,  where  it  is  out  of  the  way,  instead  of 
coming  down  in  front  of  the  head;  third,  you  obviate  the  necessity 
of  having  holes  in  your  bench  on  each  side  of  the  lathe,  that  small 
articles  may  drop  through. 

COUNTRSINK,    To  enlarge  the  outer  end  of  a  hole  for  the 
reception  of  the  head  of  a  screw,  bolt,  etc.    A  tool  used  to  turn  out  or 


.><    ENLARGED 
Fig.  100. 


ERLARQED 


Fig.  101. 

countersink.  Figs.  loo  and  loi  illustrate  Happersberger's  patent, 
fiat-bottomed  countersinks,  which  are  designed  for  making  or  deep- 
ening fiat-bottomed  countersinks  for  screw  heads  of  any  kind.  The 
screw-thread  or  hole  will  not  be  injured  in  using  these  tools.    Fig. 

102  illustrates  a  set  of  wheel  coun- 
tersinks made  with  cutters  on  one 
end  and  burnishers  on  the  other. 
Countersinks  are  also  made  from 
steel  in  the  form  of  drills  and  from 
emery  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  with 
metal  handle  for  revolving.  The 
emery  countersink  will  be  found  very  useful  for  large  holes  and  for 
trimming  the  edges  of  holes  in  enamel  dials. 

CRANK.  The  bent  portion  of  an  axis  serving  as  a  handle  or  con- 
nection for  communicating  circular  motion,  as  the  crank  on  a  steam 
engine.    To  twist  or  distort,  as  applied  to  metals. 

CREMAILLERE.  The  rack  which  winds  the  spring  of  the 
repeating  train. 

CRESCENT.  The  concave  formed  in  the  roller  of  the  lever 
escapement  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  safety  pin. 


Fig.  102. 


Crocus.  tl4 

CROCUS.  Sesquioxide  of  iron  used  with  oil  for  polishing  brass 
and  steel  work.  Crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron  are  subjected  to  a  great  heat, 
and  then  graded  into  polishing  powders  of  various  degrees  of  fineness. 
The  more  calcined  part  is  of  a  bluish  purple  color,  coarser  and  harder 
than  the  less  calcined  and  is  known  as  crocus  The  less  calcined  and 
finer  portion  is  of  a  scarlet  color  and  it  known  as  rouge. 

CROWN-WHEEL.  A  wheel  whose  teeth  are  set  at  right  angles  to 
its  plane.  A  contrate  wheel.  The  escape  wheel  of  the  verge  escape- 
ment is  a  crown  wheel. 

CRUCIBLE.  A  melting  pot  capable  of  enduring  great  heat,  with. 
out  injury  and  used  for  melting  metals.  It  is  made  of  clay  or  clay  com- 
pounded with  black  lead  and  other  materials. 

CRUTCH.  The  wire  which  connects  the  pallet  sta£f  of  a  clock  to 
the  pendulum  and  by  which  the  pendulum  is  kept  in  motion.  This 
wire  enters  a  longitudinal  slot  in  the  pendulum  rod,  if  the  rod  be 
made  of  wood,  or  is  made  in  the  form  of  a  U  if  the  rod  be  a  metal 
one.  The  slot  is  usually  lined  with  brass.  A  clock  with  long  wooden 
pendulum  is  usually  brought  to  beat  by  either  moving  the  crutch  on  the 
pallet  staflE  or  by  bending  the  crutch  itself. 

CRYSTAL.  A  term  applied  to  the  glass  of  a  watch  case.  Crys- 
tals for  watches  were  first  used  between  the  years  1615  and  1620. 

CUMMING,  ALEXANDER.  A  celebrated  clockmaker  of  Eng- 
land, who  was  born  about  1732  and  died  at  Pentonville  in  1814.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  book  called  "Elements  of  Clock  and  Watch  Work," 
which  he  published  in  1766.  There  stands  in  Buckingham  Palace  to- 
day a  clock  made  by  Gumming  for  George  III.,  which  registers  the 
height  of  the  barometer  every  day  throughout  the  year.  He  was  paid 
$io,coo  for  this  clock,  and  received  $1,000  per  annum  for  looking  after  it. 

CURB  PINS.  The  two  brass  pins  that  stand  on  either  side  of  the 
hairspring  near  its  stud  attachment,  and  are  attached  to  the  regulator. 
They  effect  the  time  of  the  vibration  of  the  balance  according  as  they 
are  shifted  by  means  of  the  regulator  to  or  from  the  point  of  attach- 
ment of  the  spring.  Some  authors  advise  timing  in  positions  by  the 
curb  pins.  This  should  never  be  attempted.  The  regulator  should 
always  stand  as  near  the  center  of  the  index  as  possible.  The  curb  pins 
should  never  be  far  from  the  stud  and  should  be  just  wide  enough  apart 
to  let  the  spring  move  between  them  and  no  more.  Instead  of  disturb- 
ing the  curb  pins  when  timing  in  positions,  add  to  or  take  from  the 
weight  of  the  balance.    See  Balance  Screw  Washers. 


115  Cycloid. 

CUSIN,  CHARLES.  A  watch  manufacturer  of  Autun,  Burgundy, 
who  in  consequence  of  the  great  persecutions  which  protestants  had  to 
endure,  went  and  settled  in  Geneva  in  15S7,  where,  it  is  claimed,  he  was 
the  first  to  establish  the  watch  trade. 

CUSTER,  JACOB  D.  The  third  maker  of  American  watches, 
Jacob  D.  Custer,  was  born  in  Montgomery  County,  Pa.,  in  1809.  In 
1S31  he  went  to  Norristown,  Pa.,  and  began  the  manufacture  of  "Grand- 
father" clocks.  In  1840  he  began  the  first  of  a  series  of  twelve  watches. 
The  writer  has  in  his  possession  one  of  these  watches,  which  is  num- 
bered 5  and  bears  the  date  February  4,  1S43.  It  is  a  three-quarter  plate, 
lever  escapement,  and  about  14  size  It  has  a  fuzee  evidently  of  Eng- 
lish make,  as  is  also  the  dial.  The  balance  bridge  is  made  of  steel  and  is 
countersunk  into  the  plate  so  that  it  is  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  upper 
plate.  The  rest  of  the  movement  was  undoubtedly  made  by  Custer,  in- 
cluding the  case,  which  is  of  silver  and  of  the  old  English  type  of  boxed 
cases.  The  gilding  is  extremely  thin.  In  1S42  Prof  Bache,  of  the  U.  S. 
Coast  Survey  asked  him  to  make  an  estimate  on  clocks  to  propel  lights 
in  the  government  light  houses.  His  estimate  was  $200,  and  he  sub- 
sequently furnished  several  hundred  of  them.  He  had  little  or  no 
educational  advantages,  and  never  learned  a  trade,  and  his  sole  knowl- 
edge of  mechanics  was  acquired  by  associating  with  those  who  learned  a 
mechanical  trade  and  the  knowledge  gained  by  years  of  experience  and 
experiment.  He  built  several  large  clocks,  one  of  which  may  still  be 
seen  in  the  Norristown  Court  House.    He  died  in  1879. 

CYCLOID.  A  curve  generated  by  a  point  in  the  plane  of  a  circle, 
when  the  circle  is  rolled  along  a  straight  line,  keeping  always  in  the 
same  plane. 

The  path  through  which  a  pendulum  travels,  to  secure  uniformity  in 
the  time  of  its  vibration,  through  arcs  different  in  extent,  should  be 
cycloidal. 

CYLINDER.  The  hollow  arbor  upon  which  the  balance  of  a 
cylinder  watch  is  mounted  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  free  to  vibrate  thus 
allowing  a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  to  pass,  and  imparting  motion 
to  the  balance 

CYLINDER  ESCAPEMENT.    This  escapement  is  one  of  what 

is  known  as  frictional  escapements,  and  the  credit  of  the  invention  is 
given  to  George  Graham.  In  the  earliest  watches  to  which  it  was 
applied  the  escape  wheel  was  made  of  brass,  but  in  this  form  it  was 
unsatisfactory  on  account  of  the  wearing  caused  by  using  a  brass 
escape  wheel.  In  later  years  a  hardened  steel  wheel  has  replaced 
the  brass  one,  and  if  well  made  answers  very  well  for  the  cheap 


Cylinder  Escapement. 


116 


Fig.  103. 


117 


Cylinder  Escapement. 


il|   I . 


^'ili! 


grade  of  watches,  but  for  accurate  timekeeping  it  cannot  be  com- 
pared to  the  lever  and  chronometer  escapements.  Fig.  103  shows  the 
escape  wheel  and  cylinder  in  both  the  plan  and  elevation,  while  in 
Fig.  104  is  shown  the  cylinder  considerably  enlarged  for  the  sake  of 
clearness.  The  plugs  are  shown  removed  to  the  better  illustrate  the 
method  of  inserting  them.  At  the  height  where  the  escape  teeth 
strike,  half  the  cylinder  is  cut  away,  while  just  below  it  is  cut  away 
considerably  more,  so  as  to  allow  the  balance  to  vibrate  almost  a 
whole  turn. 

In  the  plan  of  Fig.  103  the  cylinder  and  tooth  is 
shown  in  the  various  stages  of  lifting.  Immediately 
that  the  tooth  has  imparted  the  impulse  it  drops  unto 
a  portion  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  concentric  to  its 
axis.  In  Fig.  103  at  the  upper  side  of  the  escape  wheel 
is  shown  a  sectional  view  of  the  cylinder  at  the  beginn- 
ing of  the  impulse  which  will  drive  the  balance  around 
towards  the  right.  In  the  second  section  the  tooth  has 
completed  the  impulse  and  dropped  upon  the  interior 
locking  surface,  while  in  the  following  position  it  has 
continued  around  to  the  right  until  the  completion  of  the 
vibration.  The  next  action  will  be  the  returning  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  position  ready  to  receive  the  impulse 
which  will  cause  the  vibration  in  the  opposite  direction. 
This  action  of  return  is  accomplished  by  the  balance 
spring,  which  also  at  the  same  time  unlocks  the  tooth, 
when  the  same  action  takes  place  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. The  length  of  a  tooth  from  the  point  which 
begins  the  impulse  to  that  which  ends  it,  measured  in  a 
straight  line  should  be  equal  to  the  inside  diameter  of 
the  cylinder,  less  the  necessary  amount  for  freedom, 
while  the  outside  diameter  of  the  cylinder  should  be 
equal  to  the  space  between  the  points  of  two  teeth 
less  the  necessary  amount  for  free  action.  From  the 
above  we  see  that  there  is  a  certain  relation  between 
the  length  of  teeth  and  space  between  them,  the  inner 
and  outer  diameter  of  the  cylinder  and  the  thickness  of  the  sides  of 
the  cylinder  as  well. 

Examining  the  Escapement.  In  the  examination  of  this  escape- 
ment it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  as  necessary  that  it  be  put  in 
good  condition  and  the  same  care  be  given  to  the  work  as  in  the 
better  grades  of  watches.  This  point  is  of  importance  and  seems  to 
be  the  cause  of  much  trouble  which  might  otherwise  be  avoided,  for 
it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  a  certain  limit  in  the  care  neces- 
sary to  ensure  a  good  performance,  below  which  the  work  will  be  so 
poor  that  the  watch  will  refuse  to  keep  time.     When  first  looking  at 


Fig.  104. 


Cylinder  Escapement.  118 

the  watch  the  general  appearance  should  be  taken  into  account  and 
also  the  motion  of  the  balance.  The  balance  should  be  true  in  the 
the  round  and  flat,  also  in  the  balance  spring  the  same  condition 
should  exist.  The  beat  can  be  best  tested  by  listening  to  the  watch 
while  running.  If  the  cylinder  is  properly  set  relative  to  the  balance 
the  center  of  the  impulse  opening  will  be  in  a  line  with  the  small 
banking  pin  inserted  in  the  rim  of  the  balance  and  if  in  beat  this 
banking  pin  should  stand  in  a  line  with  the  balance  center  and  the 
escape  wheel  center.  The  correction  of  the  beat  is  made  by  shifting 
the  balance  spring  around  in  the  opposite  direction  to  what  the  bal- 
ance would  have  to  be  moved  to  correct  it.  The  endshakes  should 
not  be  excessive.  Try  the  action  of  the  teeth  and  the  cylinder  by 
slowly  revolving  the  balance,  noticing  if  the  tooth  drops  upon  the 
locking  surface  or  upon  the  rounded  impulse  edge  of  the  cylinder, 
which  would  most  probably  be  indicated  by  a  sluggish,  jerky  motion  of 
the  balance.  Too  shallow  lock  or  no  lock,  may  be  caused  by  too  shallow 
depthing  or  the  cylinder  running  untrue,  but  in  either  case  the 
remedy  is  obvious.  The  teeth  should  have  the  same  amount  of  drop 
when  they  escape  from  either  edge  of  the  cylinder.  The  tops  of  the 
escape  teeth  must  not  touch  the  top  of  the  cylinder  when  held  in  any 
position  and  it  must  be  seen  to  that  the  arms  which  support  the 
escape  teeth  do  not  strike  on  the  cylinder  either  on  the  bottom  or  at 
the  top  of  the  passage  cut  out  to  free  them.  This  last  fault  may  be 
caused  by  there  being  too  much  endshake  either  in  the  balance  or 
escape  wheel  or  it  being  unequal  between  them.  If  the  banking  pin 
is  properly  placed  and  adjusted  there  will  be  no  danger  ot  over- 
banking.  The  pin  in  the  balance  cock,  against  which  the  banking 
pin  strikes,  should  be  bent  in  towards  the  balance  center  until  the 
banking  pin  will  strike  it,  but  the  balance  will  be  free  to  vibrate.  If 
the  matching  of  the  escapement  is  not  correct  it  may  be  corrected  by 
loosening  the  chariot  screw  and  moving  it  in  the  direction  indicated. 
Making  a  Nevy. Cylinder.  The  first  requisite  in  making  a  new 
cylinder  is  to  get  the  measurements,  such  as  the  inner  and  outer 
diameter,  total  length  and  height  of  openings.  The  outer  diameter  is 
equal  to  the  distance  between  the  heel  and  the  point  of  a  tooth, 
allowing  a  sufficient  amount  for  freedom  of  action.  When  turning 
out  the  cylinder  in  the  rough  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  will  be 
necessary  to  allow  enough  metal  to  make  up  for  that  which  will  be 
removed  in  the  finishing  process.  The  inner  diameter  when  finished 
is  equal  to  the  length  of  a  tooth,  plus  clearance.  The  total  length  is 
found  by  removing  the  cap  jewels  and  measuring  from  outside  to 
outside  of  the  hole  jewels  with  a  douzieme  or  other  gauge.  The 
cylinder  proper  must  be  enough  shorter  than  the  total  length  to  allow 
for  the  length  of  the  pivots.  Heights  of  the  openings  may  be  meas- 
ured by  such  a  gauge  as  is  used  when  replacing  a  cylinder  or  in  the 


119  Cylinder  Escapement. 

absence  of  a  gauge  a  piece  of  brass  may  be  used,  filing  notches  into 
it  at  the  necessary  heights.  Having  the  several  measurements,  the 
next  step  will  be  to  select  a  piece  of  superior  quality  of  steel  wire 
and  aneal  it  thoroughly.  A  wire  chuck  is  now  selected  which  fits  the 
wire  when  if  is  mounted  in  the  lathe  preparatory  to  drilling  the  hole, 
which  should  be  first  carefully  centered,  then  drilled  with  a  cylindri- 
cal drill,  which  will  leave  the  hole  true  and  smooth.  The  drilled 
hole  should  be  somewhat  smaller  than  the  length  of  a  tooth  to  allow 
for  the  final  smoothing  and  polishing.  After  the  hole  is  drilled,  and 
without  removing  it  from  the  lathe  the  body  of  the  cylinder  is  to  be 
turned  down  until  it  will  almost  go  between  the  points  of  two  teeth 
which  must  be  reduced  in  the  finishing  until  it  will  freely  enter 
between  the  teeth.  After  the  outside  is  smoothed  by  using  oilstone 
powder  on  a  bell  metal  slip,  the  cylinder  may  be  cut  off  to  length 
and  the  inside  smoothed  by  using  the  oilstone  on  a  piece  of  wire,  but 
if  a  well  made  cylindrical  drill  was  used,  there  will  be  but  little  need 
of  this  operation  until  the  final  smoothing  and  polishing. 

The  cylinder  is  now  to  be  placed  upon  a  piece  of  brass  wire,  fitting 
it  closely  and  cemented  to  prevent  it  from  turning  around  when  cut- 
ting the  passage.  If  the  workman  has  a  milling  attachment  for  his 
lathe,  this  may  be  easily  done  by  using  a  cutter  of  the  right  size,  but 
if  no  attachment  is  at  hand,  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  small  files 
afterwards  smoothing  by  using  oilstone  powder  and  oil  on  bell  metal 
or  soft  iron  slips.  After  rounding  the  lips  it  may  be  hardened,  being 
careful  that  the  steel  is  not  burned.  If  only  one  cylinder  is  to  be 
hardened  at  a  time,  which  will  most  usually  be  the  case,  an  easy  fit- 
ting piece  of  wire  may  be  inserted  which  will  equalize  the  heating 
and  to  some  extent  prevent  burning  of  the  steel.  Oil  should  be  used 
instead  of  water  for  the  hardening,  which  will  make  the  steel  some- 
what tougher.  The  portion  of  the  cylinder  which  is  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  teeth  should  be  left  full  hard  while  the  other  portions 
^re  to  be  drawn  to  a  blue.  This  drawing  of  the  temper  may  be  best 
done  by  fitting  two  pieces  of  wire  which  project  from  each  end  about 
half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  but  do  not  pass  entirely  through 
the  cylinder  and  by  holding  the  portion  to  be  left  hard  in  a  pair  of 
pliers  the  other  parts  may  be  tempered.  The  final  smoothing  and 
polishing  may  now  be  done,  especial  attention  being  paid  to  finishing 
the  acting  portions. 

When  drawing  the  temper  of  the  cylinder,  care  is  necessary  to 
prevent  the  impulse  portion  from  being  softened,  which  would  cause 
it  to  wear  readily.  The  difficulty  of  readily  seeing  if  all  the  parts 
are  free  of  each  other,  makes  it  necessary  that  rather  more  care  be 
exercised  than  when  examining  the  lever  escapement.  There  seems 
to  be  an  inclination  among  some  workmen  to  slight  the  cylinder 
watch  when  repairing  it.    The  old  saying  that  "  what  is  worth  doing 


Cylinder  Escapement.  120 

at  all  is  worth  doing  well,"  should  always  be  kept  in  mind  by  the 
workman,  for  no  machine,  much  less  a  watch,  will  perform  satisfac- 
torily unless  given  due  care. 

An  escape  wheel  when  damaged  is  best  replaced  with  a  new  one 
if  a  suitable  one  is  at  hand,  otherwise  one  or  more  teeth  can  be 
replaced  if  carefully  done,  so  as  to  give  as  good  results  as  if  a  new 
wheel  was  used.  To  do  this,  first  with  a  thin  iron  slip  and  oilstone 
powder  make  a  thin  groove  in  that  portion  of  the  web  from  which  the 
tooth  is  broken,  parallel  with  the  flat  of  the  wheel,  and  about  half  the 
thickness  of  the  web  in  depth.  Then  take  from  an  old  wheel  a  tooth 
corresponding  in  size  and  shape  to  those  of  the  wheel  to  be  repaired, 
cutting  through  the  web  so  that  the  pillar  and  that  portion  of  the  web 
extending  back  from  the  tooth  are  still  attached. 

Now  with  the  oilstone  slip,  carefully  shape  the  section  of  the  web 
left  attached  to  the  tooth  so  that  it  will  fit  in  the  groove  cut  in  the 
wheel,  and  at  the  same  time  make  it  as  thin  as  possible  without  too 
much  impairing  its  strength. 

The  portion  that  fits  in  the  groove  is  now  to  be  "tinned,"  that  is, 
covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  soft  solder,  which  is  best  done  by  melting 
the  solder  on  the  end  of  a  flattened  piece  of  brass  or  coppor  wire  and 
applying  while  hot,  having,  of  course,  put  a  little  soldering  fluid  (chlo- 
ride of  zinc)  where  the  solder  is  to  flow.  Only  enough  solder  should 
be  used  to  cover  that  part  that  is  in  contact  with  the  wheel.  A  little 
soldering  fluid  is  now  put  in  the  groove  and  the  tooth  placed  in  posi- 
tion, being  very  careful  that  the  point  and  heel  of  the  new  tooth  are 
on  precisely  the  same  circle  with  the  other  teeth,  and  that  there  is  the 
same  distance  between  its  point  and  the  heel  of  the  next  succeeding 
tooth  as  exists  between  all  the  teeth  of  the  wheel. 

Fitting  New  Cylinder  and  Plugs.  In  most  cases  of  broken  cylin- 
ders the  upper  half  is  left  while  the  lower  and  most  important  part  is 
missing.  Take  total  length  over  all  first,  the  same  as  in  replacing 
staff,  which  can  be  done  by  the  use  of  the  Staff  Length  Gauge,  and 
then  measure  the  length  of  the  old  cylinder  from  the  under  side  of  the 
hub  to  the  end  of  the  top  pivot,  and  the  difference  between  the  two 
measurements  will  give  the  length  of  the  lower  part  of  cylinder  and 
pivot,  and  this  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  selecting  an  unfinished  cylin- 
der of  proper  length.  The  cylinders  and  also  cylinder  plugs  can  be 
purchased  from  material  houses.  Having  selected  a  cylinder,  proceed 
to  center  it  in  the  lathe  in  a  finely  centered  chuck,  leaving  lower  end 
exposed.  Turn  the  lower  pivot  first;  then  finish  off  the  lower  plug, 
and  if  necessary,  turn  off  any  surplus  body  of  shell  from  the  lower  part 
of  the  cylinder  as  occasion  demands.     For  obtaining  the  requisite 


181  Cylinder  Plugs. 

measurements  for  the  work,  the  little  tool  shown  in  Fig.  19  and  the  Staff 
or  Cylinder  Height  Gauge  shown  under  Gauges  will  be  found  useful. 
Saunier  advocates  the  use  of  experimental  cylinders,  and  suggests  that 
the  workman  will  do  well  to  make  two  or  three  different  sizes  during  his 
leisure  moments.  They  can  be  made  from  the  cylinders  kept  in 
stock  by  material  dealers.  The  cylinder  and  lower  plug  are  better  to  be 
in  one  piece  to  increase  the  strength;  the  slot  shallow  and  in  different 
positions,  (for  the  position  of  the  banking  slot  is  the  most  difficult  to 
ascertain),  and  the  cylinder  only  perforated  where  the  top  plug  is  inserted. 
The  top  plug  should  be  removed,  the  hole  tapped,  and  a  new  plug,  some- 
what longer,  screwed  in.  The  action  of  this  tool  is  similar  to  the  Staff 
Height  Gauge  mentioned  above. 

After  the  lower  end  is  finished  the  wax  is  turned  away  and  the  cylin- 
der turned  true  and  finally  cut  off  at  the  proper  length,  preserving  as 
fine  a  center  as  possible,  after  which  the  cylinder  is  reversed  and  finished. 

In  pivoting,  it  is  very  seldom  necessary  to  drill  the  cylinder,  as  the 
upper  and  lower  pivots  are  generally  the  extremity  of  plugs  closely  fit- 
ting in  each  end.  In  most  cases  the  top  pivot  may  be  replaced  by  rest- 
ing the  cylinder  on  a  stake,  the  hold  of  which  is  of  a  sufficient  diameter 
to  allow  of  the  entrance  of  the  plug,  and  too  small  to  allow  the  cylinder 
to  pass  through.  A  knee  punch  and  a  few  light  taps  of  a  hammer  are 
generally  sufficient  to  drive  the  plug  out  far  enough  to  admit  of  the 
turning  of  a  new  pivot.  The  lower  plug  must  be  driven  out  entirely 
(being  too  short  to  admit  of  turning  a  new  pivot)  and  a  new  plug  in- 
serted. The  plugs  must  be  made  to  fit  tightly  without  taper,  as  with  a 
taper  plug  there  is  great  danger  of  splitting  the  cylinder.  Should  the 
plug  be  very  tight  and  difficulty  is  encountered  in  driving  it  out,  a  few 
light  taps  all  around  the  cylinder  will  generally  stretch  it  enough  to  re- 
move the  plug  easily. 

CYLINDER  HEIGHT  TOOL.     See  Gauge. 

CYLINDER  PLUGS.  Steel  plugs  fitted  to  the  ends  of  a  cylinder 
and  on  the  ends  of  which  the  pivots  are  formed.  Cylinder  plugs  can  be 
obtained  ready  made  from  material  dealers ;  assorted  sizes  in  neat  boxes. 

DAMASKEEN.  To  decorate  a  metal  by  the  inlaying  of  other 
metals,  or  by  etching  designs  upon  its  surface.  The  embellishment  of 
the  surface  of  metals  with  rings  or  bars  is  snailing  and  is  not  damaskeen- 
ing, although  improperly  called  so  by  watchmakers  and  watch  factory 
employees  particularly.  See  Snailing,  also  Electro  Plating,  Bronzing  and 
Staining. 

DAY.  The  whole  time  or  period  of  one  revolution  of  the  eartii  on  its 
axis. 


Dead  Beat  Escapement.  132 

Solar  Day,  The  period  during  which  the  sun  is  above  the  horizon 
or  shines  continuously  on  any  given  portion  of  the  earth's  surface. 
Also  called  astronomical  day,  since  the  length  of  this  day  is  continually 
varying,  owing  to  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  and  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  a  mean  solar  day  is  employed  which  is  the  average  period  of 
one  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  relative  to  the  sun  considered  as 
fixed.  In  astronom}-  and  navigation  the  day  is  reckoned  from  noon  to 
noon,  but  the  civil  day  is  reckoned  from  midnight  to  midnight.  The 
mean  solar  day  is  uniformly  equal  to  twenty-four  hours. 

Sidereal  Day.  The  interval  between  two  successive  transits  of  a 
given  star.  It  is  uniformly  equal  to  23  hours,  56  minutes,  4.099  seconds, 
or  3  minutes,  55.901  seconds  less  than  the  mean  solar  day. 

DEAD  BEAT  ESCAPEMENT.  Anescapementin  which,  except 
during  the  actual  impulsion,  the  escape  wheel  remains  stationary  and 
does  not  recoil.     See  Graham  Escapement. 

DECANT,  To  pour  off  a  liquid  from  its  sediment;  as  the  decanting 
of  diamond  powder,  prepared  chalk,  etc.  Saunier  advises  the  watch- 
maker to  prepare  all  his  smoothing  and  polishing  materials  by  decanta- 
tion,  as  he  will  by  this  means  free  them  from  hard  or  large  particles  and 
obtain  a  uniform  grain.  At  the  present  time  the  watchmaker  can,  how- 
ever, obtain  diamond  dust,  prepared  chalk,  etc.,  ready  for  use,  that  are 
supposed  to  have  been  properly  decanted.  There  are,  however,  many 
poor  concoctions  that  have  not  gone  through  the  proper  treatment,  and 
if  the  watchmaker  is  desirous  of  doing  fine  work  and  having  reliable 
materials  always  at  hand,  it  is  well  to  decant  these  preparations,  even 
though  they  be  labeled  "prepared."  The  operation  is  a  very  simple  one 
and  takes  but  little  time.  The  material,  being  reduced  to  a  powder,  is 
placed  in  a  vessel  filled  with  water,  oil,  or  other  liquids,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  material  to  be  operated  upon,  and  after  being  thoroughly 
stirred  it  is  allowed  to  partially  settle.  The  liquid  is  then  poured  into 
another  vessel,  the  heavy  portion  remaining  in  the  bottom  of  the  first 
vessel.  This  residue  is  only  fit  for  use  in  the  very  coarsest  Avork.  The 
liquid  is  then  stirred,  allowed  to  settle  partially  again  and  is  then  poured 
into  another  vessel.  The  powder  left  should  be  labeled  i.  By  succes- 
sive operations,  each  time  increasing  the  interval  of  time  allowed  for 
settlement,  finer  deposits  can  be  obtained,  which  may  be  labeled 
respectively,  2,  3,  4,  etc.  In  decanting  diamond  power  or  oil-stone 
dust,  oil  should  be  used;  for  tripoli,  rottenstone,  or  chalk,  water;  and 
for  hartshorn  and  some  other  materials,  alcohol  is  used.  Diamond 
powder,  as  purchased  from  the  material  dealer,  can  rarely  be  improved 
upon  by  manipulation  unless  the  operator  is  expert. 


133 


Demagnetizer. 


DEMAGNETIZER.  A  machine  or  tool  used  to  remove  magnetism 
from  parts  of  watches.  There  are  several  demagnetizers  upon  the 
market.  In  some  of  these  machines  the  arc  and  incandescent  electric 
light  wires  are  attached  to  generate  the  magnetism,  while  in  the  Ide 
demagnetizer  it  is  generated  by  the  use  of  horseshoe  magnets. 

The  Greaves  demagnetizer,  shown  in  Fig.  105,  is  intended  to  be  used 

either   with   a   battery    or 
electric  light  wire. 

Fig.  106  shows  the  Berlin 
Demagnetizer;  it  is  con- 
structed on  a  principle 
similar  to  the  Greaves,  and 
like  it,  gives  the  best 
results  when  used  with 
Fig.  105.  electric  light  wires.     Pro- 

cure an  attachment  plug  snd  fasten  to  the  end  of  the  flexible  cord  accom- 
panying machine.  Insert  a  lamp  receptacle  and  turn  on  the'  current. 
Press  down  the  key  and  turn  the  handle  of  commutator,  about  150 
revolutions  a  minute.  Insert  the  watch  or  part  to  be  demagnetized  into 
the  opening  of  the  magnet,  and  revolve  very  slowly,  keeping  it  in  a 
straight  line  with  the  center  of  the  magnet  until  at  a  distance  of  two 


or  three  feet.  Keep  turning  commutator  at  regular  speed.  Release  key 
before  ceasing  to  turn.  It  is  not  necessary  to  remove  the  movement 
from  the  case  nor  to  let  it  remain  in  the  magnet.  While  the  current  is 
on  and  the  handle  being  turned  with  key  down,  insert  the  watch  into 
the  opening  and  proceed  as  above. 


Denison.  .   12  i 

DENISON,  E.  B.  A  barrister  of  London,  who  was  requested  by 
the  government  to  draw  up,  in  conjunction  with  the  Astronomer-Royal, 
specifications  for  the  construction  of  a  large  clock  for  the  Victoria  Tower 
of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  VuUiamy  and  other  leading  clockmakers, 
■who  were  invited  to  tender  for  the  work,  all  demurred  to  a  stipulation 
that  the  clock  should  be  guaranteed  to  perform  within  a  margin  of  a 
minute  a  week,  which  they  declared  to  be  too  small.  Mr.  Denison 
would  not  yield,  and  the  clock  makers  were  equally  firm.  Eventually  it 
was  decided  to  entrust  the  work  to  Mr.  Dent,  who  "was  to  make  a  clock 
from  designs  to  be  furnished  by  Mr.  Denison.  Mr.  Denison's  temerity 
was  justified  by  his  success.  The  Westminster  clock,  says  Britten,  turned 
out  to  be  the  finest  timekeeper  of  any  public  clock  in  the  world.  The 
double  three-legged  gravity  Escapement  was  invented  for  it,  besides  a 
new  maintaining  power  and  a  novel  arrangement  for  letting  oflFthe  hours 
to  satisfy  another  of  the  conditions,  which  required  the  first  blow  of  the 
hour  to  be  given  within  a  second  of  the  true  time.  Mr.  Denison  was 
elected  Pretident  of  the  British  Horological  Institute  in  1868,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  baronet,  taking  the  title  of  Sir  Edmund  Beckett  in 
1874.  ^"  ^S86  he  was  called  to  the  House  of  Lords  under  the  title 
of  Bai-on  Grimthorpe. 

DENNISON,  AARON  L.  The  father  of  the  American  watch  fac- 
tories. The  first  person  to  apply  the  interchangeable  system  to  tlie  manu- 
facture of  watches.  This  he  did  in  1850.  He  was  the  son  of  a  shoe- 
maker of  Freeport,  Me.,  and  was  born  in  the  year  1812.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  James  Carey,  a  watchmaker  of  Brunswick,  Me.,  in  1S30.  In 
1839  he  was  engaged  in  a  general  watch  and  jew- 
elry business  in  Boston  and  also  carried  a  line  of 
watchmakers'  tools  and  materials.  Invented  the 
Dennison  Standard  Gauge  in  1840.  In  the  fall  of 
1S49  he  began  to  build  machinery  for  the  manu- 
facture of  watches  on  the  interchangeable  system, 
having  associated  himself  with  Messrs  Howard, 
Davis  and  Curtis.  In  1850  he  completed  the 
model  for  the  first  watch  which  was  18  size, 
with  two  barrels,  and  was  made  to  run  eight  days. 
Aaron  L.  Dennison.  The  watch,  however,  was  not  a  success,  and  its 
place  was  filled  by  a  one  day.  At  this  time 
the  company  was  known  as  the  American  Horologe  Company.  In  1851 
the  name  was  changed  to  the  Warren  Manufacturing  Company,  and  the 
first  one  hundred  watches  bore  that  name.  The  first  watches  were  placed 
on  the  market  in  1S53.  The  next  six  hundred  watches  bore  the  name 
Samuel  Curtis  and  the  name  of  the  company  was  then  changed  to  the 
Boston  Watch  Company.  In  1854  ^'^^  factory  was  removed  from 
Boston  to  Waltham,  the  company  then  making  about  five  watches  per 


125  Depth. 

day,  and  employing  ninety  hands.  After  the  removal  the  movements 
were  engraved  Dennison,  Howard  and  Davis.  In  1857  the  company 
assigned,  and  the  property  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Royal  E.  Robbins 
for  $56,000.  Mr.  Dennison  was  then  employed  as  superintendent  and 
filled  that  position  until  1862.  In  1864  he,  with  others,  organized  the 
Tremont  Watch  Company.  He  retired  from  this  company  in  1866, 
the  name  of  the  company  having  in  the  meantime  been  changed  to  the 
Melrose  Watch  Company,  and  the  factory  removed  from  Boston  to 
Melrose,  Mass.  Prior  to  the  removal,  the  barrel,  plates  and  minor 
parts  were  made  in  the  Boston  factory,  while  the  trains,  escapements 
and  balances  were  made  in  Zurich,  Switzerland,  Mr.  Dennison  having 
charge  of  the  latter  factory.  In  1868  this  company  failed  and  Mr. 
Dennison  was  deputized  to  sell  the  factory,  which  he  did,  to  the  Eng- 
lish Watch  Company,  of  Coventry,  Eng.  Mr.  Dennison  then  went  to 
Birmingham,  Eng.,  and  embarked  in  the  manufacture  of  watch  cases. 
In  this  he  was  quite  successful,  the  firm  being  known  as  Dennison, 
Wigley  &  Co.    He  died  at  his  home  in  Birmingham  on  Jan.  9, 1895. 

DENT,  E.  J.     Born  in  1790  and  died  in  1853.    Builder  of  the  great 
Westminster  Clock,  London. 

DEPTH.    The  contact  point  between  a  wheel  and  pinion. 

DEPTHING  TOOL.  A  mechanical  device  for  transferring  the 
depthing  of  a  wheel  and  pinion  to  a  plate,  and  also  for  testing  the 
depthing  to  see  if  it  is  correct.  The  value  of  a  depthing  tool  depends 
altogether  upon  its  accuracy,  which  may  be  tested  by  the  following 
method.  The  joint  should  be  well  fitted  and  move  with  a  light  fric- 
tion. The  jaws  which  carry  the  centers  should  open  parallel  to  each 
other  to  the  full  extent  of  their 
motion,  and  the  seat  for  the  cen- 
ters must  be  parallel  with  the 
motion  of  the  jaws  and  each 
other  as  well.  The  accuracy  of 
the  centers  may  be  best  tested 
by  means  of  a  micrometer  cali- 
per by  measuring  the  centers  at 
various  distances  apart,  and  also 
at  the  opposite  ends  of  the  centers.  In  any  position  the  measure- 
ments should  be  exactly  alike.  In  the  absence  of  the  micrometer 
caliper  the  accuracy  may  be  tested  by  drawing  a  circle  with  each 
set  of  centers,  and  with  a  strong  eye-glass  examine  them  and 
see  if  they  coincide  witji  each  other.  The  variation,  if  any,  will  be 
more  marked  if  the  centers  are  first  pushed  back  as  far  as  possible 
and  then  drawing  them  out  to  their  full  extent.  When  using  the  tool 
the  centers  should  be  opened  by  means  of  the  screw  sufficiently  to 
clear  the  work  to  be  inserted,  then  after  the  work  is  in,  the  tool  is 


Detached  Escapement.  136 

carefully  adjusted  until  the  depthing  is  correct.  When  the  correct 
distance  is  found  the  work  is  to  be  removed  and  the  centers  so  set 
that  when  the  depthing  is  transferred  to  the  plate  they  will  be  at 
right  angles  with  the  plate.  If  this  is  not  done  the  depthing  will  be 
too  shallow  in  the  plate. 

DERHAM,  WILLIAM.  An  eminent  English  divine,  and  one  of 
the  early  writers  on  practical  horology.  He  was  born  at  Stourton,  near 
Worcester,  in  1657,  and  died  in  1735.  He  was  the  author  of  "The  Arti- 
ficial Clockmaker,"  a  treatise  on  watch  and  clock  work,  showing  the  art 
of  calculating  numbers  for  all  sorts  of  movements;  the  way  to  alter 
clock  work,  to  make  chimes  and  set  them  to  musical  notes,  and  to  calcu- 
late and  correct  the  motions  of  pendulums.  It  was  published  about  1700 
He  was  also  the  author  of  a  work,  entitled,  "  Philosophical  Experiments 
and  Observations  of  Dr.  Robert  Hooke,  F.  R.  S."  and  another,  called 
"  The  Antiquity  of  Clock-work." 

DETACHED  ESCAPEMENT.  The  escapement  of  a  time  piece 
in  which  the  balance,  or  pendulum,  is  detached  from  the  train,  during  a 
portion  of  its  vibration. 

DETENT.  That  which  locks  or  unlocks  a  movement;  the  piece  of 
steel  that  carries  the  stones  that  lock  and  unlock  an  escape  wheel. 

DE  VICK,  HENRY.  A  celebrated  German  watchmaker  of  the  four- 
teenth century  and  the  builder  of  the  famous  clock  belonging  to  Charles 
v.,  of  France.  Also  claimed,  by  some  writers,  to  be  the  inventor  of  the 
Verge  escapement.    See  Clocks, 

DIAL.  The  graduated  face  of  a  time  piece.  Dials  were  first  enameled 
by  Paul  Viet,  of  Blois,  in  1635. 

The  greater  majority  of  American  dials  are  what  are  known  as  enamel 
dials,  which  consist  of  a  copper  plate  for  a  base  and  an  enameled  face. 
The  process  of  making  these  dials,  as  carried  on  in  our  factories,  is  as 
follows:  The  copper  is  shaped  and  holes  punched  in  one  operation.  The 
feet  are  then  brazed  on,  after  which  the  enamel  is  applied  to  both  the 
back  and  face,  after  which  it  is  fired.  After  smoothing  they  are  again 
fired,  and,  if  perfect,  they  are  sent  to  the  painter.  For  many  years  after 
most  of  the  other  work  in  our  factories  was  done  by  machinery;  the 
painting  of  dials  was  hand  work.  The  Waltham  Company,  after  experi. 
menting  for  a  number  of  years,  finally  brought  to  perfection  a  process, 
by  means  of  which  the  dials  are  lettered,  and  the  numerals,  minute  and 
second  marks  are  printed  by  photography.  Various  processes  are  used  in 
other  factories,  among  them  being  the  transfer  process,  which  is  effected 


137  Dial. 

by  rubbing  the  enamel  paint  into  a  steel  plate  into  which  the  lettering  of 
the  dial  is  countersunk,  taking  an  impression  from  this  plate  upon  a 
rubber  platen  and  then  transferring  this  impression  to  the  dial.  After 
painting,  the  dials  are  again  fired. 

Dials  of  gold,  silver  and  other  metals  are  extensively  used,  particularly 
in  the  Spanish-American  countries. 

To  Drill  an  Enamel  Dial.  Select  a  piece  of  soft  copper  wire  of  the 
diameter  you  wish  the  hole,  file  off  the  end  perfectly  flat  and  hammer 
into  the  copper  a  small  quantity  of  fine  diamond  powder.  This  form 
of  drill  will  be  found  to  perforate  the  enamel  of  a  dial  quite  rapidly. 
Broaches  made  in  the  same  manner  give  excellent  results.  These  tools 
can  be  used  either  by  revolving  in  the  fingers  or  in  the  lathe.  Emery 
countersinks  will  be  found  very  useful  for  trimming  the  edges  of  holes 
in  enamel  dials. 

To  Remove  a  Name  From  Dial.  Apply  a  little  fine  diamantine  to 
the  end  of  your  forefinger,  and  gently  rub  the  name  until  it  disappears. 
The  finish  can  be  restored  by  polishing  the  place  carefully  with  a  small 
quantity  of  diamantine  mixed  with  oil,  and  applied  by  means  of  a  small 
piece  of  cork.     An  agate  burnisher  is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

To  Remove  Stains  From  Enamel  Dials.  Enamel  dials  sometimes 
have  black  or  cloudy  stains  upon  their  faces,  caused  usually  by  the  tin 
boxes  in  which  they  are  shipped.  These  can  be  removed  with  a  piece  of 
soft  tissue  paper  previously  dampened  with  nitric  acid.  Wipe  the  stained 
places,  carefully  avoiding  the  painted  portions  as  much  as  possible,  for 
in  some  very  cheap  dials  the  painting  is  not  well  fired,  and  may  be 
injured  by  the  acid.  Wash  the  dial  thoroughly  in  clean  water  and  dry 
in  sawdust. 

To  Reduce  the  Diameter  of  a  Dial.  Rest  the  dial  in  an  inclined 
position  and  file  the  edge  with  a  half-smooth  file,  dipping  the  file  in  tur- 
pentine occasionally,  and  finish  with  a  fine  emery  stick. 

To  Repair  a  Chipped  Dial.  Gently  heat  the  surface  of  the  dial  and 
fill  the  hole  with  a  compound  of  white  lead  and  white  resin,  heated  over 
the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp.  It  is  better  to  heat  the  blade  of  a  knife 
rather  than  the  wax,  and  run  no  risk  of  discoloring  the  wax.  Cut  off  a 
small  piece  of  the  wax  and  press  firmly  into  the  hole,  allowing  it  to  pro- 
ject a  little  above  the  dial.  When  cold,  scrape  down  even  with  the  dial, 
and  finish,  by  holding  it  close  to  the  flame,  when  the  patch  will  gloss 
over  nicely.  Be  careful  and  do  not  get  it  too  close  to  the  flame,  or  you 
may  turn  the  enamel  yellow.  A  mixture  of  white  lead  and  white  wax 
applied  and  polished  by  friction  is  also  used,  but  it  is  not  as  handy  and  is 
not  as  capable  of  a  high  polish. 


Dialing.  128 

To  Clean  Metal  Dials.  Silver  and  gold  dials  can  be  restored  by 
gently  heating  the  back  over  a  spirit  lamp  and  dipping  the  dial  in  diluted 
nitric  acid.  If  the  figures  are  painted  however,  they  will  be  removed, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  repaint  them,  but  if  they  are  enameled  on,  the 
enamel  will  not  be  injured.  If  the  figures  are  painted  the  dial  may  be 
cleaned  by  brushing  with  powdered  cream  of  tarter  either  dry  or  in  the 
form  of  a  paste  mixed  with  water.  Avoid  all  the  painted  portions  and 
work  the  paste  in  between  the  painted  portions  with  a  pointed  peg  wood. 
Wash  with  warm  water  and  dry  by  carefully  patting  with  a  soft  linen  rag. 

To  Grind  Enamel  from  the  Back  of  Dial.  It  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  remove  a  portion  of  the  enamel  from  the  back  of  a  dial  to  allow  room 
for  the  motion  work,  etc.  The  most  convenient  method  is  to  grind  the 
back  with  emery,  preferably  in  the  shape  of  a  wheel.  Water  should  be 
applied  to  the  work  from  time  to  time  to  prevent  heating. 

Luminous  or  Phosphorescent  Dial.  A  dial  covered  with  varnish  or 
a  solution  of  white  wax  in  turpentine,  over  which  is  dusted  powdered 
sulphide  of  barium.  Such  a  dial  is  luminous  in  the  dark  so  that  it  can  be 
read  without  a  light.  It  loses  its  phosphorescence  after  a  time,  but  this 
may  be  restored  by  exposing  it  to  sunlight  or  to  the  flame  of  magnesium 
wire. 

DIALING.  The  art  of  constructing  dials.  The  science  which  ex- 
plains the  principles  of  measuring  time  by  the  sun  dial. 

DIAL  WORK.  The  motion  work  of  a  watch  between  the  dial  and 
the  movement  plate. 

DIAMANTINE.  This  polishing  agent  is  used  extensively  for  pol. 
ishing  steel,  and  is  a  preparation  of  crystallized  boron.  It  is  not  applica- 
ble to  brass  or  copper  work.  Rubitine  and  Sapphirine  are  similar  chem- 
ical preparations ;  they  act  quicker,  but  do  not  yield  as  good  results. 

DIAMOND  DRILLS.  Pieces  oi  copper  wire,  in  the  ends  of  which 
are  embedded  fragments  of  diamond  in  the  shape  of  triangular  prisms 
and  held  in  place  with  shellac.  They  are  used  for  drilling  jewels,  etc. 
They  may  be  obtained  from  material  dealers. 

DIAMOND  GRAVERS.  These  are  very  similar  to  diamond  drills 
and  are  mounted  in  the  same  manner,  but  usually  consist  of  larger,  though 
shorter  and  stronger  diamond  fragments,  and  are  used  for  shaping 
jewels,  etc.    They  may  also  b«  obtained  from  material  dealers. 


129  Diamond  Laps  or  Mills. 

DIAMOND  LAPS  OR  MILLS.  These  are  of  two  kinds,  one  for 
grinding  and  the  other  for  polishing.  The  grinding  mills  are  copper  discs, 
from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  into  the  surface  of  which 
diamond  powder  of  various  grades  has  been  hammered  or  rolled.  The 
polishing  mills  are  made  of  box- wood,  vegetable  ivory,  etc.,  and  the  pow- 
der is  applied  to  their  surfaces  in  the  shape  of  a  paste  mixed  with  olive 
oil.  These  mills  are  useful  for  cutting  or  polishing  ruby-pallets,  and 
other  hard  stones,  for  flattening  stones  to  be  used  as  jewels  and  for  man. 
ipulating  hard  steel. 

DIAMOND  FILES.  Strips  of  copper  into  the  face  of  which  diamond 
powder  of  various  degrees  of  coarseness  has  been  hammered  or  rolled. 
Used  for  working  ruby-pallets  and  other  hard  stones  and  hard  steel. 

DIAMOND  POWDER.  A  cutting  and  polishing  agent  prepared 
from  the  crushed  chips  from  the  diamond  cutter's  table,  black,  brown,  and 
other  inferior  stones,  known  as  bort,  and  small  diamonds.  After  pulveriz- 
ing thoroughly,  the  powder  is  decanted  in  olive  oil  to  various  degrees  of 
fineness.  To  be  had  of  material  dealers  generally.  Used  for  charging 
the  face  of  mills  or  laps  for  grinding  and  polishing  hard  stones,  etc.  It 
is  also  used  for  drilling  by  being  applied  to  the  end  of  a  small  taper  piece 
of  steel,  flattened  on  the  end  for  the  reception  of  the  powder,  which  is 
moistened  with  olive  oil. 

DIPLEIDOSCOPE.  An  instrument  invented  by  J.  M.  Bloxam,  in 
1843,  used  for  determining  the  time  of  apparent  noon.  It  consists  of  two 
mirrors  and  a  plane  glass  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  prism,  so  that,  by  the 
reflection  of  the  sun's  rays  from  their  surfaces,  two  images  are  presented 
to  the  eye,  moving  in  opposite  directions,  and  coinciding  the  instant  the 
sun's  center  is  on  the  meridian. 

DIVIDING  PLATE.     See  Index. 

DOG.  A  clutch.  An  adjustable  stop  to  change  the  motion  of  a 
machine  tool. 

DOG  SCREWS.  The  screws  with  half  heads  by  which  a  movement 
is  held  in  its  case. 

DOUBLE  ROLLER  ESCAPEMENT.  A  form  of  the  lever 
escapement  in  which  a  separate  roller  is  employed  for  the  guard  action. 

DOUBLE  SUNK  DIAL.  A  dial  having  two  sinks,  one  for  the 
hour  and  another  for  the  seconds  hand. 


Douzieme.  180 

DOUZIEME.  A  unit  of  measurement  indicating,  ^of  a  lineor  yjy 
of  an  inch.     See  Gauge. 

DRAW.  The  angle  of  the  locking  faces  of  the  pallets,  as  in  the  lever 
escapement, 

DRAW  PLATE.  A  plate  of  rery  hard  steel  for  drawing  wire  of 
various  shapes  and  diameters.  They  are  made  for  drawing  round,  half- 
round  and  square  wire.  The  plates  are  sometimes  formed  of  jewels  for 
working  steel  wire,  etc.  These  plates  are  very  handy  for  readily  reducing 
wire  to  any  desired  diameter,  and  may  also  be  employed  for  reducing 
the  diameter  of  bushings. 

DRIFTING  TOOL.  A  tool  for  punching  holes  in  mainsprings,  etc. 
It  consists  of  a  frame  to  be  held  in  the  vise,  through  which  a  screw 
passes,  and  to  the  end  of  which  a  handle  is  attached.  It  is  used  but  little 
in  this  country,  as  the  mainspring  punch  has  superceded  it,  being  simpler 
and  quicker  to  operate. 

DRILLS  AND  DRILLING.  Drilling  may  be  effected  in  two  ways, 
by  rotating  the  drill  and  holding  the  work  stationary,  or  vice  versa.  The 
most  satisfactory  results,  however,  are  obtained  by  revolving  the  work 
and  gradually  bringing  the  drill  into  contact  with  it.  Although  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  do  this,  owing  to  the  shape  of  the  article  to  be  drilled. 
A  drill  of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.   109  is  preferable  for  drilling   hard 

steel,  while  the  shape  shown  in  Fig. 
no  is  best  suited  for  drilling  soft 
steel,  brass,  etc.  Oil  or  glycerine 
diluted  with  alcohol  is  the  best  lubri- 
cant for  the  softer  metals,  but  when 
M^        J^        drilling  hard  steel  turpentine  should 

be  used.     Drills  of  the  form  shown 
Fig.  109.    Fig.  no.  Fig.  111.  Fig.  112.      .       „.  j    -^         j  .,1. 

m   Fig.   Ill,   are   used   for    drilling 

flat  bottomed  holes,  for  countersinking  screw  heads,  etc.  See  also 
Countersinks,  The  twist  drill  shown  in  Fig.  112  is  desirable  when  drill- 
ing deeply,  as  this  form  of  drill  heats  slowly  and  the  particles  are  car- 
ried to  the  surface  of  the  work.  Pivot  drills,  like  those  shown  in  Fig. 
113,  can  be  purchased  from  material  dealers,  mounted  on  cards  and 
ready  for  use,  at  such  [small  cost  that  it  will  scarcely  pay  the  watch- 
maker to  make  them. 

Drills  of  a  form  indicated  by  Fig.  114  are  recommended  highly  by 
Saunier  and  are  known  as  semi-cylindrical  drills.  They  are  made  from 
cylindrical  steel  rods,  rounded  at  their  ends  and  filed  down  to  a  trifle 
less  than  half  their  thickness.    The  length  of  the  point  should  be  greater 


tl 


181 


Drill  Rest. 


or  less  according  to  the  nature  ot  the  metal  to  be  operated  upon,  but 
under  no  circumstances  must  the  point  itself  be  sharp.  This  form  of 
drill  should  be  sharpened  on  the  round  side 
and  not  on  the  flat  surface.  It  possesses, 
says  Saunier,  the  advantages  that  when 
placed  in  a  drill-chuck  it  can  be  turned 
exactly  round,  of  the  required  diameter 
and  finish ;  so  that  whenever  replaced  in 
the  chuck,  one  can  be  certain  beforehand 
that  the  hole  drilled  will  be  of  a  definite  diameter.  With  such  a  drill 
the  hole  is  smoothed  immediately  after  it  is  made  by  one  or  the  other 
cutting  edges. 


11 

1  T 


i'ig.  113. 


Fig.  114. 


DRILL  REST.  In  using  the  lathe  for  drilling,  a  great  saving  in 
both  time  and  drills  can  be  effected  by  using  a  drill  rest  similar  to  that 
shown  in  Fig.  115.  It  is  well  to  have  a  half  dozen  different  sizes,  start- 
ing at  ^  inch  and  increasing  by  3^  inch,  for  various  classes  of  work. 
These  rests  are  not  kept  by  material  dealers,  but  can  be  made  by  the 
watchmaker.  Saw  from  a  piece  of  rolled  sheet  brass,  say  1-16  inch 
thick,  the  circles  required,  leaving 
metal  enough  to  finish  nicely 
Place  a  steel  taper  plug  in  the 
taper  chuck  of  your  lathe  and 
turn  down  a  recess,  leaving  a 
shoulder  on  the  taper.  Drill  a 
hole  through  the  brass  plate  to  fit 
the  steel  taper  tightly.  Place  the 
end  of  the  taper  on  a  lead  block  ■^*fi'-  ^^5- 

and  proceed  to  rivet  the  brass  plate  on  the  taper,  making  sure  that 
it  is  true.  Replace  the  taper  in  the  lathe-chuck  and  proceed  to  turn  the 
face  and  edge  of  the  brass  plate  perfectly  true  and  to  the  proper  size. 
Those  who  have  tried  to  drill  a  straight  hole  through  an  object  by  hold- 
it  in  the  fingers  know  just  how  difficult  it  is  to  do,  but  by  placing  one  of 
these  drill  rests  in  the  spindle  of  the  tail  stock,  placing  the  article  to  be 
drilled  against  it  and  bringing  it  up  against  the  drill,  you  can  drill  the 
hole  perfectly  upright  and  avoid  all  danger  of  breaking  the  drill. 


DRILL  STOCK.  A  tool  used  for  nolding  drills,  the  more  modern 
variety  having  a  small  chuck  on  one  end  for  centering  and  holding  the 
drill. 


DRILLING  LATHE.  A  lathe,  used  for  centering  and  drilling 
staffs  and  pinions.  The  plate  has  various  sizes  of  conical  holes  for  sup- 
porting the  arbor,  and  can  be  turned  upon  its  center. 


Drop.  13  i 

DROP.  Is  the  amount  of  freedom  allowed,  in  parts  which  come  in 
contact  with  each  other,  to  compensate  for  inaccuracies  in  workman- 
ship. In  horology  it  is  principally  applied  to  the  escapement  action 
where  a  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  drops  a  varying  distance  from  the 
completion  of  one  action  to  the  beginning  of  another.  In  the  chro- 
nometer, and  other  escapements,  there  are  two  drops.  One  drop 
begins  at  the  completion  of  the  unlocking,  when  the  tooth  falls  upon 
the  impulse  pallet,  and  the  other  one  begins  at  the  completion  of  the 
impulse  and  ends  when  the  tooth  drops  upon  the  locking  stone.  In 
the  lever  and  cylinder  escapements  the  drop  is  known  as  inside  or 
outside  drop,  according  as  it  takes  place  on  the  inside  or  outside  of 
the  pallet  or  cylinder.  All  drop  is  just  so  much  power  wasted  and 
should  be  as  small  as  possible. 

DRUM.  The  barrel  of  a  turrret  clock  on  which  the  driving  cord 
is  wound.  There  is  a  variety  of  escapement,  known  as  the  Drum 
Escapement,  which  is  met  with  but  little  in  this  country.  Britten  says 
this  variety  of  escapement  is  a  continual  source  of  trouble  to  English 
repairers.  It  receives  impulse  from  every  other  vibration  only,  and 
the  idea  of  the  escapement  appears  to  be,  that  by  providing  a  long 
frictional  rest  on  one  of  the  pallets,  the  extra  pressure  of  the  escape 
wheel  tooth,  when  the  mainspring  is  fully  wound,  will  be  sufficient  to 
prevent  any  considerable  increase  in  the  arc  of  vibration  of  the 
pendulum.  Clocks  with  this  escapement,  however,  often  stop  from 
the  diminished  power  when  the  spring  is  nearly  run  down,  again, 
when  it  is  fully  wound,  because  the  small  and  light  pendulum  has  not 
the  energy  to  unlock  the  pallet. 

DUPLEX  ESCAPEMENT.  This  escapement  is  shown  in  a 
plan  view  in  Fig.  1 16,  while  Fig.  1 17  shows  an  elevation  of  the  staff  and 
one  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel.  This  escapement  was  no  doubt  so 
named  on  account  of  the  double  escape  wheel,  which  was  used  in  the 
earliest  forms.  Duplex  is  a  Latin  word  meaning  double,  and  there  is 
but  little  doubt  that  this  escapement  derived  its  name  from  the  fact 
of  this  double  escape  wheel,  although  some  writers  claim  it  was  the 
invention  of  a  watchmaker  by  the  name  of  Dupleix,  an  Englishman, 
who  was  even  but  little  known  in  his  own  country,  and  from  whom 
the  name  was  derived.  Saunier  says  of  this  invention:  "The  first 
crude  suggestion  of  the  duplex  escapement  seems  to  have  been  made 
by  Dutertre,  a  clever  French  watchmaker;  but  Pierre  Le  Roy  was 
the  real  originator  of  this  mechanism,  having  first  constructed  it 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century."  Some  very  good  results  were 
obtained  from  it,  but  on  account  of  its  susceptibility  to  wear  at  the 
pivots,  as  well  as  for  other  reasons,  it  has  fallen  into  disuse,  until  it 
was  modified  and  adopted  by  the  Waterbury  Watch  Company,  where 
it  has  proven  very  satisfactory.    The  impulse  teeth  rise  from  the 


13d 


Duplex  Escapement. 


plane  of  the  body  of  the  wheel  and  are  represented  in  the  black  out- 
lines of  Fig.  1 16,  while  the  long  teeth  are  the  locking  ones.  The  cen- 
ter of  the  escape  wheel  and  balance  are  planted  close  enough  so  that 


Fig.  116. 

the  circle  of  the  escape  wheel  and  the  duplex  roller  intersect  each 
other  sufficiently  that  the  escape  teeth  cannot  pass  except  when  the 
tooth  drops  into  the  notch  of  the  roller  and  is  traveling  in  the  same 
direction  of  the  escape  wheel.  At  the  instant  that  the  tooth  passes 
the  notch  the  impulse  tooth  strikes  upon  the 
impulse  pallet,  thus  imparting  the  power  to  the 
balance.  In  the  return  vibration  the  locking 
tooth  falls  into  the  notch,  but  the  momentum  of 
the  balance  overcomes  that  of  the  escape 
wheel,  and  no  impulse  is  transmitted  until  both 
balance  and  escape  wheel  are  moving  in  the 
same  direction.  The  locking  of  the  escape 
wheel  in  this  form  does  not  take  place  under 
favorable  conditions,  for  when  the  balance  is 
returning  just  prior  to  the  receiving  of  an  im- 
pulse the  friction  is  engaging  and  when  in  this 
position,  any  slight  roughness  on  the  roller 
would  cause  a  wedging  action,  causing  the  watch 
to  stop.  By  reference  to  the  figure  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  balance  is  at  no  time  detached  from  the  motive  power, 
being  more  or  less  influenced  by  it  during  its  entire  vibration.  In  some 
of  the  older  and  finer  specimens  of  the  duplex  the  roller  was  made  of 
ruby,  but  as  now  made  it  is  always  of  steel.    It  will  be  noticed  that 


Fig.  117. 


Duplex  Escapement.  134 

at  the  time  a  tooth  is  unlocked  the  action  is  very  much  like  the  chro- 
nometer, and  at  the  locking  resembles  the  cylinder  to  a  certain  extent. 
The  drop  is  changed  by, shifting  the  impulse  pallet  on  the  balance 
staff.  If  the  drop  is  too  great  the  impulse  pallet  is  to  be  moved  so 
that  the  angle  between  the  roller  notch  and  the  impulse  pallet  is 
greater  and  if  the  drop  is  not  sufficient  they  are  to  be  moved  closer 
together.  When  in  beat  the  notch  in  the  roller  should  point  to  the 
center  of  the  escape  wheel,  although  this  point  is  varied  by  different 
workmen.  Some  authors  say  that  this  escapement  requires  consider- 
able drop,  sometimes  as  much  as  ten  degrees.  In  this,  as  in  the 
chronometer,  the  amount  of  drop  should  be  the  smallest  amount  pos- 
sible to  have  a  positive  action  of  the  impulse.  All  drop  is  just  so 
much  power  wasted  and  the  less  we  can  have  it  the  weaker  main- 
spring we  can  nave  and  in  this  respect  is  so  much  less  power  upon 
the  train  which  could  only  cause  it  to  wear  away  at  the  various  points 
of  contact.  The  balance  jewels  should  fit  the  pivots  accurately,  as  if 
they  do  not  the  tooth  may  catch  or  bottom  in  the  notch  of  the  roller 
when  held  in  certain  positions,  and  in  others  the  tooth  would  not  have 
sufficient  hold  on  the  roller  for  the  safety  of  the  locking.  When 
cleaning  it  is  necessary  that  the  roller  notch  be  thoroughly  cleaned. 
A  balance  spring  having  about  ten  coils  is  the  best  suited  to  this 
escapement.  The  watch  previously  referred  to,  which  is  made  in 
this  country,  has  proven  that  the  duplex  escapement,  when  well 
made,  compares  very  favorably  with  the  same  grades  of  lever 
watches,  and  superior  to  the  cylinder  in  point  of  timekeeping.  The 
setting  of  the  escapement,  which  in  the  older  forms  of  the  escape- 
ment has  been  well-nigh  eliminated,  there  being  no  more  difficulty 
experienced  with  this  than  any  other  watch.  The  workman  who 
uses  the  same  care  when  repairing  one  of  these  watches  as 
he  would  in  a  lever,  will  have  but  little  trouble  in  getting  a 
satisfactory  performance.  Among  the  more  prominent  causes  of 
stoppage  in  the  escapement  are,  a  roller  which  is  not  true,  and  this 
will  most  probably  be  found  in  one  where  some  workmen  has  tried 
to  pivot  the  staff  and  failed  to  get  it  properly  centered,  the  teeth 
catching  in  the  notch  and  a  roller  poorly  smoothed,  a  point  of  a  tooth 
may  be  slightly  bent  so  that  it  cannot  enter  the  notch  or  bind. 

DUPLEX  ROLLER.     The  ruby  roller  of  the  duplex  escapement. 

DUST  BANDS.  Thin  metal  bands  or  guards  which  are  inserted 
between  the  upper  and  lower  plates  of  a  movement  to  exclude  all 
dust. 

E  ARNSHAW,  THOMAS.     A  celebrated  watchmaker  of  London, 

who  was  born  at  Ashton-under-Lyne,  Lancashire,  in  1749,  and  died  in 
181 4.     He  was  the  inventor  of  the  spring  detent  escapement  and  the 


135  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

compensation  balance,  both  substantially  as  now  used  in  chronometers. 
He  made  his  improvement  in  the  spring  detent  in 
1 78 1.      He  presented  a  petition  to  the  Board  of 
Longitude  for  aid  in  1791,  and  again  in  1797.     He 
received   his  long-contested  reward,  Dec.  27,  1805. 


EAST,  EDWARD.  A  celebrated  watch  and 
clockmaker  of  London.  He  was  one  of  the  ten 
original  assistants  appointed  by  the  Charter  of 
Incorporation  of  the  Clockmakers'  Company  in 
1632.  Was  Warder  in  1638-9,  Master  in  1645-52, 
Treasurer  in  1637,  being  the  only  occupant  of  the  Thomas  Earnshatv. 
latter  office  in  the  history  of  the  company.  He  was  watchmaker  to 
Charles  L 

ELECTROPLATING,  BRONZING  AND  STAINING.  The 
first  requisite  in  attempting  to  do  electroplating  in  a  small  way  ia  to  under- 
stand the  battery  and  to  select  one  that  will  give  an  electric  current  of  the 
proper  intensity  and  quantity  for  the  required  time,  without  too  much 
care  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  workman.  Were  he  provided 
with  measuring  instruments,  so  that  he  could  readily  determine  when 
his  current  was  changing  in  quantity  and  power,  the  choice  of  a  battery 
would  not  be  of  so  much  importance;  but  volt  meters  and  ampere  meters 
are  too  expensive  to  be  possessed  by  the  average  man  who  does  plating  in 
a  small  way,  and  he  is  necessarily  obliged  to  depend  on  theory  in 
arranging  his  forces  and  judge  of  the  results  by  the  appearance  of  his 
work  in  the  bath.  Hence  it  is  important  that  he  should  have  an  under- 
standing of  the  nature  of  the  action  in  the  battery  and  be  able  to  maintain 
the  requisite  conditions  from  the  appearance  of  the  battery  itself 

Without  attempting  to  give  too  close  a  definition,  electricity  may  be 
defined  as  a  force  or  energy  which  is  the  result  of  a  displacement  of  the 
normal  balance  of  forces  between  two  elements  in  close  connection  with 
one  another.  This  normal  force  is  called  the  potential  of  its  element, 
and  if  two  elements  having  different  potentials,  are  connected  together 
and  placed  in  a  fluid  which  will  produce  chemical  action  upon  one  or 
both,  the  result  will  be  a  flowing  of  energy  through  the  connection  to  the 
element  having  the  lowest  potential.  This  will  be  kept  up  as  long  as  the 
chemical  action  continues  and  the  connection  between  the  two  elements 
remains  unbroken.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that,  owing  to  the  varying 
potentials  of  the  different  elements,  the  varying  facility  of  the  conductors 
used  to  connect  them,  and  the  varying  intensity  of  chemical  action  in 
the  solution  employed,  the  electrical  current  will  vary  in  strength  (or 
voltage)  in  different  batteries,  and  in  quantity,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  elements  and  the  freedom  with  which  they  are  attacked  by  the  solu- 
tion. 


Electro-Plating,  Etc.  136 

Voltage  is  the  measure  of  strength  or  intensity  of  the  current  and 
depends  upon  the  difference  of  potentials  of  the  elements  and  the  kind  of 
chemical  action  between  them.  It  is  the  same  for  the  same  combination, 
regardless  of  the  size  of  the  elements.  Thus,  a  battery  the  size  of  a 
thimble  has  the  same  voltage  as  one  the  size  of  a  door,  if  the  elements 
and  solution  are  the  same.  We  have  not  the  space  to  explain  this  at 
length,  but  will  simply  state  that  the  volt  is  the  recognized  unit  of  the 
measurement  of  strength  of  electric  currents. 

The  ampere  is  the  unit  of  measurement  of  the  quantity  of  currents. 
Amperage  depends  on  the  size  of  the  elements;  and  the  available  amper- 
age depends  on  the  size  of  the  conductors  and  the  freedom  of  action 
between  the  elements.  Amperage  is  consumed  by  doing  work  or  by  the 
heating  of  insufficient  conductors,  or  by  undue  resistance  in  the  battery, 
just  as  power  is  consumed  in  turning  steel,  or  m  running  shafting,  or 
overcoming  the  resistance  caused  by  friction  of  boxes  on  a  shaft  that 
is  run  without  oil.  Strictly  speaking,  if  the  voltage  or  intensity  of  the 
current  be  sufficient  to  do  the  work  required,  then  the  amperage  is  the 
force  used  to  do  the  work,  and  it  is  destroyed  by  that  work  and  the 
chemical  or  electrical  resistance,  just  as  mechanical  power  is  consumed 
in  running  a  lathe  or  doing  any  other  work.  From  this,  it  .ollows,  that 
in  order  to  operate  economically,  extreme  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
connections  be  large  enough  to  carry  the  current  easily ;  that  the  solu- 
tion be  kept  in  perfect  order,  both  in  the  battery  and  the  plating  vat ;  and 
that  all  joints  be  kept  bright  and  firm  so  as  to  insure  perfect  contact  and 
offer  no  resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  current. 

The  current  always  flows  from  the  element  having  the  highest  poten- 
tial (called  the  +  or  positive  pole)  along  the  wire  and  through  the  solu- 
tion in  the  plating  vat,  to  the  other  wire,  and  thence  to  the  negative  pole, 
carrying  with  it  in  passing  through  the  solution,  particles  of  metal  from 
the  anode  and  depositing  it  on  the  article  to  be  electroplated  (called  the 
cathode) ;  hence  care  should  be  taken  to  always  get  the  cathode  affixed 
to  the  negative  ( — )  pole  of  the  battery,  in  order  that  it  may  receive  the 
deposit. 

Electrical  resistance  is  that  property  of  conductors  (wires,  solutions, 
objects,  etc.)  by  which  they  tend  to  reduce  the  intensity  of  a  current 
passing  through  them.  The  practical  unit  of  resistance  is  the  ohm. 
The  number  of  amperes  of  current  flowing  through  a  circuit  is  equal 
to  the  number  of  volts  of  electro  motive  force,  divided  by  the  number  of 
ohms  of  resistance  in  the  entire  circuit,  that  is  from  positive  pole  clear 
through  wires,  solution  and  battery,  back  to  the  starting  point.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  if  the  resistance  be  greater  than  the  voltage  of 
one  cell  will  overcome,  no  current  will  flow,  and  the  voltage  must  be 
increased  to  such  an  amount  as  will  allow  the  desired  quantity  of  current 
to  pass.  This  is  done  by  coupling  cells  in  various  ways,  which  will  be 
explained  at  length  further  on. 


137  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

The  resistance  of  a  conducting  wire  is  directly  proportional  to  its 
length,  and  inversely  proportional  to  the  square  of  its  diameter ;  hence  it 
follows  that  the  short  and  large  wires  cause  less  loss  of  current  than 
smaller  and  longer  ones. 

In  all  batteries  the  resistance  increases  with  the  distance  between  the 
elements,  and  decreases  when  the  immersed  surfaces  are  increased. 
The  resistance  is  also  increased  by  the  bubbles  of  hydrogen  liberated  at 
the  positive  pole  sticking  to  it  in  great  numbers.  Hydrogen  is  a  noncon- 
ductor and  prevents  the  action  of  the  solution  on  the  metal.  When 
this  takes  place  to  such  an  extent  as  to  stop  chemical  action  altogether, 
no  current  will  pass  and  the  battery  is  said  to  be  polarized. 

These  remarks  are  intended  to  aid  in  the  intelligent  selection  of  bat- 
teries, etc.,  those  who,  having  to  deal  with  such  apparatus,  yet  have 
never  had  the  opportunity  to  study  an  electrical  treatise.  We  are  often 
asked :  What  is  the  best  battery .''  We  can  only  answer :  There  is  no 
best  battery ;  that  is,  no  battery  is  suited  to  all  kinds  of  work.  That 
which  is  best  in  one  case  may  be  worst  in  another.  The  suitability  of  a 
battery  for  any  special  purpose  depends  on  what  is  called  its  constants, 
i.  e.,  electro-motive  force  and  internal  resistance.  In  order  to  be  really 
perfect  a  battery  should  fulfill  the  following  conditions: 

1.  It  electro-motive  force  should  be  high  and  constant. 

2.  Its  internal  resistance  should  be  small. 

3.  It  should  give  a  constant  current  and  must  therefore  be  free  from 
polarization,  and  not  liable  to  rapid  exhaustion,  requiring  frequent  re- 
newal  of  material. 

4.  It  should  consume  no  material  when  the  circuit  is  open. 

5.  It  should  be  cheap  and  of  durable  materials. 

6.  It  should  be  manageable  and,  if  possible,  should  not  emit  corrosive 
fumes. 

No  single  battery  fulfills  all  these  conditions,  however,  and,  as  we 
have  already  intimated,  some  batteries  are  better  for  one  purpose  and 
some  for  another.  Thus,  for  telegraphing  through  a  long  line  of  wire,  a 
considerable  internal  resistance  is  of  no  great  consequence,  as  it  is  but  a 
small  fraction  of  the  total  resistance  in  circuit.  For  electric  gas  lighting 
or  other  low  resistance  circuits,  on  the  other  hand,  much  internal  resist- 
ance would  be,  if  not  absolutely  fatal,  certainly  a  positive  disadvantage. 
The  most  reliable  batteries  for  electroplating  work  are  the  Daniel,  Grav- 
ity, Bunsen,  Smee  and  Carbon,  which  we  will  accordingly  describe  in 
their  order. 

The  Daniell,  Fig.  ii8,  consists  of  a  glass  or  stoneware  jar,  containing 
a  cylinder  of  copper  surrounding  a  porous  clay  cup,  in  which  stands  a 
cylinder  of  zinc.  At  the  upper  part  of  the  copper  sheet  is  a  pocket  of 
perforated  copper,  which  is  filled  with  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper. 
The  object  of  the  pocket  is  simply  to  hold  the  sulphate  up  to  the  top  of 
the  solution,  so  that  it  will  dissolve  more  readily,  and  any  other  method 


Electro-Plating,  Etc. 


188 


would  do  as  well.  In  charging  this  battery,  the  glass  vessel  and  the 
porous  cup  are  filled  with  water,  and  crystals  of  sulphate  of  copper  are 
put  in  the  pocket.  If  wanted  for  immediate  use,  a  small  quantity  of 
sulphate  of  zinc  may  be  dissolved  in  water  and  added  to  the  porous  cup; 
if  not  wanted  immediately,  the  battery  may  be  short  circuited  by  connect- 
ing the  zinc  and  copper  elements  by  a 
piece  of  copper  wire,  and  it  will  attain 
its  full  strength  in  ten  or  twelve  hours. 
A  little  sulphuric  acid  dropped  in  the 
porous  cup  will  answer  just  as  well,  if 
sulphate  of  zinc  is  not  on  hand.  The 
chemical  action  of  this  battery  is  as 
follows:  The  zinc  decomposes  the 
water,  forming  oxide  of  zinc  and  libera- 
ting the  hydrogen.  The  oxide  of  zinc 
attacks  the  sulphate  of  vitriol,  depriving 
it  of  the  acid,  which  forms  sulphate 
of  zinc,  and  leaving  it  as  oxide  of 
copper ;  the  oxide  of  copper  is  thereupon 
attacked  by  the  hydrogen,  which  com- 
bines with  the  oxygen  and  forms  water, 
while  the  metallic  copper  falls  to  the 
bottom  as  a  fine  powder.  It  will  thus 
be  seen  that  action  is  simple  and  continuous,  no  fumes  are  given  off,  and 
all  that  is  required  to  maintain  the  action  is  a  regular  supply  of  copper 
sulphate  to  keep  the  fluid  in  the  outer  jar,  near  the  point  of  saturation. 
The  most  prominent  fault  of  this  battery  is  the  tendency  of  the  copper  to 
fill  the  pores  of  the  cup,  and  thus  decrease  the  action  of  the  battery.  It 
can  be  partially  prevented  by  coating  the  bottom  and  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  of  the  sides  of  the  porous  cup  with  wax,  and  brushing  off  the 
deposit  as  fast  as  it  is  formed.  The  battery  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand 
on  open  circuit  without  the  zinc  element  being  removed,  and  the  sul- 
phate of  zinc  solution  in  the  cup  should  not  be  heavier  than  25°  B,  nor 
lighter  than  15'  B.  If  these  precautions  are  observed,  the  battery  should 
give  a  constant  and  free  current  as  long  as  any  zinc  remains.  Its 
electro-motive  force  is  about  1.07  volt,  and  a  gallon  cell  will  give  about 
one-half  ampere,  when  in  good  order,  on  a  short  circuit.  Its  internal 
resistance  varies,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  exceed  three  to  five  ohms. 


Fig.  118. 


The  Gravity  Battery.  In  consequence  of  the  trouble  caused  by  the 
precipitation  of  the  copper  on  the  porous  cell  in  the  Daniell  battery, 
Cromwell  F.  Varley,  in  1854,  while  experimenting,  found  that  the  differ- 
ence in  specific  gravity  between  solutions  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  sul- 
phate of  zinc  was  sufficient  in  itself  to  entirely  separate  them,  the  copper 
solution  lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell,  and  the  zinc  solution  remaining 


139  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

superposed  upon  it.  He  accordingly  dispensed  with  the  porous  cup,  placed 
his  copper  element  at  the  bottom,  and  the  zinc  near  the  top  of  a  glass 
jar,  and  thus  originated  the  gravity  battery  of  to-day.  It  is  the  simplest, 
most  reliable  and  constant  form  known,  and  has  displaced  all  others  for 
closed  circuit  work,  requiring  a  low  voltage,  «uch  as  telegraphing,  etc. 
Its  voltage,  when  first  set  up,  is  1.07,  running  down  under  constant  work 
to  .90,  and  a  gallon  cell  will  give  one  half  ampere  on  short  circuit.  The 
form  of  cell  shown  in  Fig.  119  is  known  as  the  "  crowfoot,"  on  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  zinc  (positive) 
element  is  spread  out,  to  expose  a  large  surface 
of  zinc  to  the  solution.  It  is  the  form  used  for 
telegraphing,  and,  therefore,  can  be  readily 
attained  anywhere.  Of  course,  other  forms, 
shapes  and  sizes  can  be  made  at  the  option  of 
the  workman.  To  set  up  this  battery,  the  copper 
strip,  being  unfolded  so  as  to  form  a  cross,  is 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  a  jar,  the  zinc  is  sus- 
pended from  the  top  as  shown,  and  clean  water, 
containing  one-tenth  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
sulphate  of  zinc  is  added,  until  it  nearly  touches 
the  zinc.  Sulphate  of  copper  crystals  are  then 
added  one  by  one  until,  if  the  battery  is  meant  to  be  continually 
used,  they  nearly  cover  the  top  of  the  copper  strip.  If  the  battery 
is  not  intended  for  continual  use,  it  will  be  fonnd  more  advantageous 
to  use  but  a  few  ounces  of  sulphate  of  copper,  as  the  more  concen- 
trated the  solution,  the  greater  is  the  tendency  to  local  action.  The 
sulphate  of  zinc  may  be  dispensed  with  if  the  battery  is  not  required 
for  immediate  use;  in  this  case,  the  latter  should  be  short  circuited, 
and  left  so  for  several  days.  The  need  of  blue  vitriol  will  be  indicated 
by  the  discoloration  of  the  lower  stratum  of  the  liquid.  It  is  best  to 
keep  the  line  marking  the  two  solutions  about  halfway  between  the 
zinc  and  copper.  Should  the  sulphate  of  zinc  become  too  concen- 
trated, a  portion  of  it  should  be  removed  by  means  of  a  syringe  or  cup, 
and  its  place  supplied  by  water.  To  determine  when  this  is  necessary, 
a  hydrometer  may  be  used.  Below  15°  the  solution  is  too  weak;  above 
25°  it  is  too  strong,  and  should  be  diluted.  If  the  battery  is  taken  care 
of  from  month  to  month,  it  should  not  require  a  thorough  cleaning 
more  than  once  a  year  When  this  is  done  the  deposits  formed  upon 
the  surface  of  the  zinc  should  be  scraped  off,  the  jars  washed  and  the 
liquids  renewed  as  in  the  beginning. 

It,  however,  the  batteries  are  in  constant  use,  care  must  be  taken  to 
keep  the  zincs  clean  and  the  solutions  as  indicated  above.  If  the  sul- 
phate of  zinc  is  allowed  to  become  "saturated,  it  will  crystalize  on  the 
zinc  and  on  the  edge  of  the  jar,  gradually  creeping  over  the  edge.  This 
should  be  wiped  off  with  a  damp  cloth  and  a  little  oil  or  fat  smeared  over 


Electro-Plating,  Etc.  140 

the  top  of  the  jar  to  prevent  creeping.  The  jars  should  not  be  disturbed, 
as  this  would  cause  the  two  solutions  to  mix,  and  they  should  be  kept  in 
a  dry,  even  temperature,  (60°  to  80°  F).  Freezing  would  stop  the  action 
of  the  battery. 

The  Bunsen,  or  Carbon  Battery.  Fig.  120,  consists  of  a  glass  jar 
containing  a  hollow  zinc  cylinder,  slit  on  one  side  to  allow  a  free  circu- 
lation of  the  solution;  within  this  stands  a  porous  cup  containing  a  bar 
of  carbon.  To  charge  this  battery,  the  amalgamated  zinc  is  placed  in 
the  glass  jar,  the  porous  jar  in  the  center  of  the  zinc  cylinder  and  the 
carbon  in  the  porous  jar.  In  the  outer  jar  is  sul- 
phuric acid,  diluted  with  twelve  times  its  weight 
of  water  and  in  the  porous  jar  electropoion  fluid. 
(See  Electropoioti  Fluid,  page  143). 

The  voltage  of  this  battery  is  2.028;  its  amper- 
age cannot  be  given,  as  it  depends  largely  upon 
the  care  which  is  given  the  battery,  the  size  of 
the  cell  and  the  condition  of  the  porous  cups, 
which  vary  greatly  in  porousity  and  conducting 
power.  It  emits  fumes  of  hydrogen  and  sulphur- 
ous acid  if  not  in  good  condition,  and  should  not 
be  used  in  the  same  room  with  fine  tools  or 
metal  work  that  is  liable  to  injury.  It  soon  runs 
Fig.  120.  down,  requiring  recharging  every  day  when  in 

constant  use,  but  is  simple  to  handle  when  understood  and  is  generally 
furnished  in  small  outfits  for  nickel  plating,  etc.,  on  account  of  its  high 
voltage  and  the  quantity  of  current  given  off  when  in  good  order.  The 
zincs  must  be  kept  well  amalgamated  or  they  will  polarize  very  rapidly 
and  destroy  the  current;  care  should  also  be  taken  that  no  sediment  be 
allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  porous  cup  and  fill  its  pores,  thus  stopping 
the  action.  It  is  more  expensive  to  run  than  the  gravity,  as  the  zincs 
are  eaten  by  the  acid  much  faster,  especially  if  not  ktpt  well  amal- 
gamated ;  but  it  will  deliver  a  greater  quantity  of  current  in  a  given  time 
than  a  gravity  cell  of  equal  size.  The  internal  resistance  of  a  new  cell 
is  about  one-half  an  ohm.  The  plates  should  be  removed  and  cleaned 
when  the  battery  is  not  in  use. 

The  Smee  Battery.  Fig.  121,  consists  of  two  plates  of  amalgamated 
zinc,  between  which  is  placed  a  silver  plate  coated  with  platinum,  the 
object  of  the  platinum  being  to  fill  the  surface  of  the  plate  with  inumer- 
able  fine  points  which  aid  in  discharging  the  bubbles  of  hydrogen  which 
would  cling  closely  to  it  if  the  plate  were  smooth  and  thus  polarize  the 
battery.  This  battery  is  charged  with  a  solution  of  one  part  sulphuric 
acid  to  seven  of  water.    The   plates  are  connected  to  the  clamp  and 


141  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

placed  in  jar.  In  this  battery,  above  all,  the  precaution  of  amalgamating 
the  zinc  should  never  be  neglected.  With  an  unamalgamated  zinc  the 
results  are  very  unsatisfactory. 

The  voltage  of  the  Smee,  when  not  in  action,  .s  1.09  volts;  when  in 
action  it  runs  down  to  .482  volts;  this  is  caused  by  the  hydrogen  clinging 
to  the  plate  as  described.  This  was  the  form  of  cell  generally  used 
before  the  introduction  of  djnamos  for  electrotyping  and  other  heavy 
work,  and  it  is  still  used  to  a  large  extent.  It  emits  fumes  of  hydrogen 
when  in  action,  but  it  is  a  single  fluid  battery  and  when  working  in  large 
sizes,  plates  12x12  inches  in  size  are  suspended  in  a  large  tink  of  acidu- 
lated water,  first  a  plate  of  zinc,  then  a  plate  of  platinized  silver,  then 
another  of  zinc  and  so  on  alternately,  zinc  and  platinum,  to  the  end. 
This  gives  great  facility  in  handling,  as  any  number 
of  plates  to  suit  the  work  may  be  placed  in  the  tank. 
As  there  is  but  one  tank  and  the  plates  may  be  placed 
close  together  or  far  apart  as  required,  the  resistance 
may  be  easily  made  to  balance  that  in  the  depositing 
tank,  and  thus  the  work  will  be  performed  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions. 

In  working  the  Smee,  or  any  other  battery  for  that 
matter,  large  tanks  are  better  than  small  ones,  pro- 
vided that  the  plates  are  kept  close  together  so  as  to 
reduce  internal  resistance  of  the  battery.  In  the 
large  Smee,  if  plates  12x12  are  worked  in  a  tank  say  ^'^^-  ^2^- 

15x15x30,  it  will  not  be  long  before  the  sulphate  of  zinc,  which  forms 
and  falls  to  the  bottom,  will  soon  commence  to  rise  in  the  tank,  thus 
shutting  off  the  acid  from  a  portion  of  the  plates  and  reducing  the 
quantity  of  current.  If  the  same  plates  were  worked  in  a  tank  24x24x30, 
the  tank  might  be  permitted  to  become  half  full  of  zinc  sulphate  before 
the  action  would  be  impaired  at  all,  and  thus  a  much  more  even  and 
constant  current  would  be  maintained ;  this  is  generally  done  in  practice. 
In  a  gravity  battery,  however,  the  tank  ought  not  to  be  deep,  because  the 
two  elements  should  not  be  more  than  eight  inches  apart  on  account  of 
the  increased  resistance  caused  by  the  sejiaration.  The  tank,  however, 
may  be  made  large  enough  in  length  and  width  to  contain  elements  of 
the  desired  size,  or  a  number  of  standard  zincs  and  coppers,  if  such  an 
arrangement  seems  desirable,  either  to  increase  the  facility  of  handling 
or  to  reduce  the  cost  of  a  large  number  of  jars,  wires,  connections,  etc. 
We  have  seen  a  number  of  tanks  made  of  wood,  lined  with  lead,  10x10- 
x6o  inches,  in  which  a  single  large  copper  element  was  placed  at  the 
bottom  and  a  number  of  zincs  hung  as  required  from  an  insulated 
copper  bar  across  the  top.     It  seemed  to  work  well  and  was  convenient. 

A  few  words  as  to  coupling  batteries  may  be  of  service.  It  should  be 
born  in  mind  that  the  quantity  of  current  flowing  in  any  circuit  is  the 
quotient  resulting  from  dividing  the  voltage  by  the  total  resistance  in  that 


Electro-Plating,  Etc. 


143 


circuit  and  that  the  resistance  may  be  increased  or  diminished  by 
increasing  or  dimishing  the  distance  between  the  elements  of  the  battery 
and  between  the  anode  and  cathode  in  the  plating  vat;  also  that  the 
resistance  varies  inversely,  as  the  surface  of  the  elements  immersed. 
Thus  a  plating  surface  of  one  square  foot  in  the  plating  vat  will  offer 
four  times  as  much  resistance  as  four  square  feet.  It  thus  becomes  pos- 
sible by  increasing  or  diminishing  the  voltage  of  a  current  to  keep  the 


Fig.  122. 

current  flowing  in  the  desirea  quantity,  and  by  keeping  the  resistance  in 
the  battery  about  equal  to  that  in  the  vats  the  highest  economy  is 
obtained. 

For  example,  let  us  take  eight  cells,  having  a  voltage  of  i,  and  giving 
say  ^  ampere  per  cell  on  short  circuit.  If  we  now  couple  then — , +, 
— ,  +,  — ,  +,  — ,  +,  we  shall  have  the  voltage  of  S  and  the  amperage  of 
one  cell  of  the  same  size  with  a  voltage  of  eight,  in  other  words,  the 
same  amount  of  current  and  eight  times  the  strength  of  the  single  cell, 
as  in  Fig.  122. 

This  is  termed  coupling  in  series,  and  would  be  used  in  solutions 
having  a  high  resistance  and  small  amount  of  surface  immersed.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  solution  had  a  low  resistance  and  large  surface 
exposed,  so  that  the  voltage  of  one  cell  was  ample  to  force  the  current 


-•C 


Fig.  123. 

through  the  circuit,  they  should  be  connected  +,  +,  +,  +,  +,  +,  +,  +, 
and  — ,  — ,  — ,  — ,  — ,  — ,  — ,  — ,  giving  the  quantity  of  eight  cells  and  the 
voltage  of  one,  which  amounts  to  nearly  the  same  thing  as  if  a  single 
battery  having  eight  times  the  surface  of  the  single  cell  were  used. 
This  is  termed  coupling  in  multiple.  Fig.  123.  Similarly,  if  they  were 
coupled  +,  — ,  +,  — ,  +,  — ,  +,  —  and  +,  — ,  +,  — ,  +,  — ,  +,  and  those 
two  were  joined  as  in  Fig.  124,  we  should  have  the  equivalent  of  a  bat. 
tery  possessing  a  voltage  of  four,  and  elements  twice  the  size  of  the 
single  cell.    This  would  be  spoken  of  as  a  battery  of  eight  cells  in  series 


143 


Electro-Plating,  Etc. 


of  four.  Also  four  multiples,  in  series  of  two,  might  be  arranged  to  give 
a  voltage  of  two  and  quantit}'  due  to  cells  of  four  times  the  size  of  a 
single  cell,  as  shown  in  Fig.  125.  As  the  amperes 
*~^  of  current  passing  per  second  depends  upon  the 
voltage,  divided  hy  the  number  of  ohms  resist- 
ance, in  the  circuit,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  current 
can  be  controlled  by  coupling  and  by  manipulat- 
ing the  resistance. 


To  Amalgamate  Zincs.  This  may  be  very 
w^ell  done  by  first  immersing  the  zincs  in  a  solu- 
tion of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  then  in  a  bath  of 
mercury.  A  brush  or  cloth  may  be  used  to  rub 
them,  so  as  to  reach  all  points  of  the  surface. 
Where  a  large  quantity  is  to  be  amalgamated, 
the  following  will  be  found  to  be  a  good  method : 
Dissolve  eight  ounces  of  mercury  in  a  mixture 
consisting  of  two  lbs.  of  hydrochloric  and  one  lb. 
the  solution  is  complete,  add  three  lbs.  more 
The   zinc    is   amalgamated    by   immersing    it 

in  this  solution  for  a  few  seconds,  quickly  removing  to  a  vat  of  clear 

water  and  rubbing  it,  as  in  the  first  case,  with  a  brush  or  cloth.     If  the 

solution  is  kept  in  a  covered  vessel  it  may  be  used  a  number  of  times. 
In  all  batteries  in  which  acids  are  used  the  zincs  should  be  kept  well 

amalgamated   and   should    be 

removed    from    the    solution 

when  not  in  use.    This  is  very 

important  and  should  not  be 

overlooked. 


C- 


Fig.  124. 
of   nitric   acid ;   when 
of    hydrochloric    acid. 


Improved  Electropoion 
Fluid.  Add  one  part  (by  vol- 
ume) of  sulphuric  acid  to  10 
parts  of  water.    Of  10  pounds 

(or  pints)   of   the   dilute  acid,  ^^9-  125. 

add  from  i  to  2  pounds  of  chromic  acid,  according  to  the  strength 
of  current  desired.  Where  constant  action  over  a  long  time  is  desired, 
rather  than  maximum  energy,  omit  part  or  all  of  the  sulphuric  acid. 

Bichromate  of  potash  is  no  longer  used  for  batteries  by  intelligent 
workers.  It  owes  its  virtues  to  a  small  amount  of  chromic  acid  which 
can  be  obtained  from  it  by  reaction.  Pure  chromic  acid  is  cheaper  for 
the  same  work,  and  is  free  from  many  of  the  difficulties  attendant  on 
the  use  of  the  bichromate. 

Connections.  Having  a  knowledge  of  the  theoretical  action  of  the 
battery,  the  next  question  is  the  connections.     Cleanliness  cannot  be  too 


Electro-Plating,  Etc. 


144 


strongly  insisted  upon  in  making  joints,  etc.  The  plater  should  make  it 
an  invariable  rule  to  see  that  all  surfaces  of  wires,  screws,  etc.,  through 
which  the  current  must  pass,  be  kept  bright  on  the  surfaces,  through 
which  electrical  contact  is  made.  When  joining  wires  they  should  be 
brightened  with  a  file,  or  with  emery  cloth,  and  then  twisted  firmly 
together  with  a  pair  of  pliers;  all  permanent  connections  should  be  care- 
fully soldered  and  the  holes  and  the  ends  of  screws  in  binding  posts 
should  be  kept  bright;  and  if  for  permanent  use  all  conducting  wires 
should  be  of  pure  copper,  well  insulated.  The  following  table  shows  in 
the  last  column  the  loss  of  current  in  wires  carrying  an  economical 
amount  of  current;  if  the  wire  be  too  small  this  loss  is  rapidly  quadru- 
pled until  the  wire  burns.  The  economy  of  using  large  and  short  con- 
nections will  be  apparent  after  a  slight  study  of  this  table. 

Table  showing  the  Weight,    Carrying    Capacity   and    Loss  in 
Volts  of  different  sizes  Copper  Wire. 


J3  O 

««« 

n 

.§•2 
—  0 

E-S 
.2§ 
0 

•a  4) 

Approximate  weight 
Underwriters'    In- 
sulation,  per  1000 
feet. 

E 
<! 
a 

Loss     in  Volts    per 
Ampere    per     100 
feet     of     line     (2 
Wire.) 

0000 

.46 

.40964 

.3648 

.32495 

.2893 

.25763 

.22942 

.20431 

.18194 

.16202 

.14428 

.12849 

.11443 

.10189 

.090743 

.080808 

.071961 

.064084 

.057068 

.05082 

.045257 

.040303 

640  5 
508.5 
402.8 
319.6 
353.4 
201.0 
159.3 
126.4 
lOO.g 
79  46 
63  01 
49.98 
89  64 
31.43 
24.93 
19  77 
1568 
12.43 
9  86 
7  82 
6.20 
4.92 

825  lbs. 
610  lbs. 
458  lbs. 
385  lbs. 
308  lbs. 
249  lbs. 
201  lbs. 
163  lbs. 
133  lbs. 
109  lbs. 

90  lbs. 

74  lbs. 

62  lbs. 

52  lbs. 

43  lbs. 

36  lbs. 

80  lbs. 

25  lbs. 

21  lbs. 

18  lbs. 

15  lbs. 

IJ  lbs 

312. 

862. 

220. 

185.   . 

156. 

181. 

110. 

92  3 

77.6 

052 

54.8 

46.1 

38.7 

32.5 

27.3 

23. 

19.3 

16.2 

18.6 

11.5 
9.6 
8.1 

.0098 

000 

.0123 

00 

.0155 

0 

.0196 

1 

.0247 

2 

.0311 

3 

.0392 

4 

.0495 

5 

.0624 

6 

.0787 

t 

.0992 

8 

.125 

9 

.158 

10 

.199 

11 

.251 

12 

■316 

13 

.399 

14 

■503 

15 

■634 

16 

.799 

17 

1088 

18 

1.271 

145  Electro-Plating,  Etc 

No  matter  what  battery  be  used,  there  are  several  preliminary  con- 
ditions that  must  be  complied  with  in  order  to  produce  satisfactory 
results,  i.  e.  that  the  deposition  may  adhere  firmly  and  take  place  uni- 
formly. It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  pure  metallic  surface  of  the 
article  be  exposed,  and  that  it  be  perfectly  free  from  grease.  The 
articles  to  be  plated,  if  lustrous  surfaces  are  desired,  must  first  be  ground 
and  polished.  The  grease  must  be  removed  from  the  surface  by  boiling 
in  potash  or  caustic  soda,  and  this  is  followed  by  scouring  with  freshly 
burnt  lime,  pulverized  thoroughly  and  free  from  all  grit.  If  the  article 
will  not  stand  heat,  cleanse  with  benzine.  In  order  to  free  the  surface 
of  non-metallic  substances,  if  the  article  be  of  iron,  steel  or  silver,  dip  it 
in  a  mixture  of  i  part  by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  to  15  of  water;  if  cop- 
per or  brass,  the  articles  are  first  dipped  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
in  a  mixture  of  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  nitric  acid,  50  of  sulphuric  acid, 
I  of  common  salt  and  i  of  soot.  As  soon  as  the  surface  of  the  article 
assumes  a  bright  appearance,  it  is  washed  in  clean  water  once  or  twice, 
avoiding  handling  with  the  fingers  or  greasy  cloths.  Wooden  plyers, 
kept  clean,  serve  well  for  handling. 

Avoid  the  injurious  fumes  produced  by  the  acids,  by  operating  in  the 
open  air  or  in  the  draft  of  a  chimney.  In  order  to  determine  whether 
the  article  is  entirely  free  from  grease,  dip  it  into  water,  and  if  all 
grease  is  removed,  the  water  will  adhere  uniformly;  if,  however,  lines 
and  spots  appear,  the  article  is  not  thoroughly  clean,  and  must  again  be 
put  through  the  cleasing  process. 

Copper.  Perhaps  the  most  useful  solutions  for  the  plater  are  the 
cyanide  copper  solution,  and  the  cyanide  brass  or  bronze  solution.  The 
acid  copper  solution  generally  used,  which  is  merely  sulphate  of  copper 
dissolved  in  water,  is  easily  made  and  used,  but  has  numerous  disadvan- 
tages when  compared  with  the  cyanide.  It  will  deposit  faster,  but  leaves 
a  rough  and  crystalline  surface,  and  cannot  be  used  on  steel,  as  the  latter 
metal  is  electrically  opposed  to  copper  in  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  sets  up  a  local  action  which  throws  off  the  deposit  in  scales  as  fast 
as  it  is  formed. 

The  cyanide  solution  deposits  a  smooth,  even  and  firm  coating,  takes 
equally  well  on  steel,  brass  or  other  surfaces,  and  is'capable  of  so  many 
variations  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  basis  of  all  brass,  bronze  and 
copper  plating.  It  is  also  the  only  sure  means  of  making  a  firm  deposit 
of  silver  or  gold  on  steel.  Articles  of  iron  or  steel  should  first  be  given 
a  light  coating  of  copper,  and  then  the  gold  or  nickel  will  be  held  firmly, 
evenly  and  smoothly,  so  that  lighter  coatings  of  the  more  expensive 
metals  will  wear  longer  and  look  better  than  a  thicker  deposit  directly 
on  the  steel. 

The  old  formulae  for  cyanide  of  copper  solutions,  all  recommend  mix- 
ing acetate  of  copper  with  carbonate  and  bisulphite  of  soda,  and  then 


Electro-Plating,  Etc  146 

adding  potassium  cyanide  to  the  carbonate  of  copper  thus  formed.  This 
encumbers  the  bath  with  a  number  of  useless  secondary  reactions,  and 
makes  it  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  It  is  much  better  to  buy  carbonate 
of  copper  from  a  dealer  in  platers'  supplies.  It  is  cheaper  than  the  ace- 
tate, and  does  not  put  anything  in  the  solution  which  is  unnecessary 

To  make  the  solution,  use  to  each  gallon  of  water: 

Carbonate  of  copper ..... ...7  ozs. 

Carbonate  of  soda ..^ 2  ozs. 

Cyanide  of  potassium  (chemically  pure) .... 8  ozs. 

Dissolve  about  nine-tenths  of  the  cyanide  of  potassium  in  a  portion  of 
the  water,  and  add  nearly  all  of  the  carbonate  of  copper,  previously  dis- 
solved in  a  portion  of  the  water;  then  add  the  carbonate  of  soda,  also 
dissolved  in  water,  slowly  stirring  until  thoroughly  mixed.  If  you  have 
a  hydrometer,  make  your  solution  to  16°  B.,  then  put  in  a  small  article 
and  test  your  solution,  adding  cyanide  or  copper,  or  both,  until  the  solu- 
tion deposits  freely  and  uniformly. 

This  may  be  regarded  as  a  stock  solution,  and  if  much  work  is  done,  it 
is  best  to  use  it  as  a  basis  and  make  others  from  it,  keeping  them  separate. 

Brass.  Brass  solutions  of  any  desired  color  may  be  made  by  adding  car- 
bonate of  zinc,  in  varying  proportions,  to  the  above  solution.  One  part  of 
zinc  and  two  of  copper  carbonates  will  give  a  beautiful  golden  yellow  brass, 
and  should  be  used  with  an  anode  of  the  same  color.  If,  however,  the 
plater  desires  to  match  colors  on  repairing  jobs,  etc.,  he  can  get  any 
desired  color  from  this  bath  by  varying  his  current;  a  strong  current 
will  deposit  more  zinc  than  copper,  giving  a  paler  color  of  brass  in  the 
deposit;  and  a  weaker  current  will  deposit  more  copper  than  zinc,  giving 
a  redder  deposit  In  this  way  most  repair  jobs  can  be  matched  in  color, 
although  it  is  better,  when  doing  new  work,  to  make  your  solution  of 
the  color  desired,  and  use  an  anode  of  the  same  color,  as  by  doing  so  you 
put  the  two  metals  into  the  solution  in  the  same  proportion  as  you  are 
taking  them  out.  If  you  are  using  copper  anodes,  it  is  best  to  buy  the 
electrically  deposited  anodes  from  a  dealer  in  platers'  supplies,  as  they 
cost  no  more,  are  always  pure,  and  deposit  much  freer  and  smoother 
than  the  hard  rolled  copper  for  sale  at  metal  houses.  The  same  thing 
also  applies  to  anodes  of  brass,  gold  or  silver,  but  in  less  degree. 

Management.  Those  who  have  never  used  the  cyanide  bath  may 
desire  some  additional  particulars  regarding  its  management.  The 
anodes  in  such  a  bath  generally  carry  a  slight  greenish  coating,  consist- 
ing of  copper  cyanide.  This  is  soluble  in  the  free  cyanide  that  is  in  the 
bath,  and  only  traces  of  it  should  appear  on  the  anodes.  When  the 
cyanide  is  used  up,  this  green  coating  thickens  up  rapidly,  and  the  bath, 
shortly  afterwards,  stops  depositing.  In  such  case,  add  cyanide  (dis- 
solved in  water)  very  slowly,  in  order  not  to  get  in  too  much. 


147  Electro-Plating,  Etc 

If  too  much  cyanide  is  in  the  bath,  bubbles  of  hydrogen  will  come 
from  the  objects  to  be  coated,  but  no  copper  will  be  deposited,  and  the 
remedy  Is  adding  carbonate  of  copper. 

If  either  of  the  above  does  not  give  a  rapid  and  even  coating,  the  bath 
needs  more  metal,  and  you  are  likely  using  too  small  an  anode  and 
stripping  your  bath.  The  remedy  is,  of  course,  found  in  adding  more 
carbonate  and  using  a  larger  anode. 

Gold  Baths.  Both  warm  and  cold  baths  are  used,  the  former  being 
preferable,  as  they  yield  denser  depositions,  require  less  strength  of  cur- 
rent, and  need  not  be  so  rich  in  gold  as  cold  baths.  Many  platers  pre- 
pare gold  baths  by  dissolving  3^  ounces  of  chemically  pure  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  a  quart  of  distilled  water,  and  connecting  two  cells  of  Bun- 
sen  battery  with  two  gold  anodes,  and  working  it  until  the  solution  con- 
tains 32  grains  of  gold  to  the  quart  of  water,  which  can  be  told  by  weigh- 
ing the  anodes  from  time  to  time.  It  does  not  give  as  bright  a  color, 
however,  as  dissolving  an  equiva]ent  quantity  of  chloride  of  gold  in  the 
cyanide,  owing  to  the  presence  of  silver  and  copper  in  the  gold  anodes, 
and  consequently  in  the  bath.  In  purchasing  your  chloride  of  gold, 
where  possible  get  the  brown  neutral  variety,  as  it  is  preferable  to  others, 
as  it  contains  less  acid. 

A  good  warm  bath  is  prepared  as  follows:  Neutral  chloride  of  gold,  7 
pennyweights;  99  per  cent  potassium  cyanide,  33  grains;  water,  i  quart. 
Dissolve  the  potassium  cyanide  in  one-half  of  the  water  and  the  chloride 
in  the  other  half,  mix  both  solutions,  and  boil  for  half  an  hour,  replacing 
the  water  lost  by  evaporation.  The  solution  will  last  indefinitely  if  tha 
anode  used  is  large  enough  to  make  up  for  the  gold  used.  When  the 
anode  is  covered  with  a  slight  coating  in  the  bath,  it  shows  a  want  Of 
cyanide  of  potassium,  which  is  best  added  by  dissolving  an  ounce  of 
chemically  pure  cyanide  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  adding  a  little  at  a  time, 
until  the  bath  works  all  right  again.  Too  much  free  cyanide  in  the  bath 
gives  an  ugly,  pale  color  and  irregular  deposit. 

A  cold  solution  will  give  a  pale  color;  increasing  the  temperature  to 
140°  gives  a  reddish  color;  120"  to  130"  gives  a  fine  yellow.  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  heat  hastens  the  chemical  reactions  in  the  bath,  and  the 
gold  deposits  much  more  rapidly,  so  the  operator  should  look  out  not  to 
deposit  more  gold  than  he  wants,  and  thus  strip  his  solution.  The  anode 
surface  should  also  be  less  with  the  hot  solution. 

Changes  of  color  can  also  be  made  by  increasing  the  current  and 
anode  surface  in  a  cold  solution,  by  putting  in  some  sort  of  resistance  in 
the  circuit  for  the  paler  colors,  and  withdrawing  it  for  the  redder  ones. 
As  anodes,  it  is  best  to  use  sheets  of  fine  gold,  which  gradually  dissolve, 
and  thus  convey  fresh  metal  to  the  bath.  The  current  must  not  be  so 
strong  that  a  formation  of  bubbles  is  perceptible ;  it  is  best  to  use  a  cur- 
rent of  such  strength  only  that  deposition  takes  place  slowly,  a  coating 


Electro-Plating,  Etc.  148 

of  the  greatest  density  being  thus  obtained.  Avoid  using  cheap  and 
Inferior  chemicals,  as  the  difference  in  price  is  more  than  ofTset  by  the 
time  and  damage  that  often  results  from  inferior  grades.  To  obtain 
good  results,  always  use  as  pure  water  as  possible,  filtered  rain  water 
being  the  most  desirable.  The  best  temperature  for  cold  baths  is  66^  F. 
Care  should  also  be  taken  to  see  that  the  baths  are  covered  with  cloths 
to  exclude  dust,  and  where  it  does  penetrate,  the  baths  should  be 
skimmed  off. 

Only  copper,  brass  and  bronze  can  be  directly  gilded ;  other  metals 
must  first  be  coppered  or  brassed;  this  applies  to  good  work.  In  gilding 
parts  of  watches,  gold  is  seldom  directly  applied  upon  the  brass ;  there  is 
generaMy  a  preliminary  operation  called  graining,  by  which  a  slightly 
dead  appearance  is  given  to  the  articles.  They  are  thoroughly  finished, 
all  grease  removed  as  described  above,  threaded  upon  a  brass  wire, 
cleansed  in  the  compound  acids  for  a  bright  luster,  and  dried  in  sawdust. 
The  pieces  are  fastened  upon  the  flat  side  of  a  piece  of  cork  by  means  of 
brass  pins,  and  the  parts  are  thoroughly  rubbed  over  with  a  clean  brush 
dipped  in  a  paste  composed  of  fine  pumice  stone  powder  and  water. 
The  brush  is  moved  in  circles,  in  order  to  rub  evenly.  Thoroughly 
rinse  in  clean  water  in  order  to  remove  every  particle  of  pumice  stone, 
both  from  the  article  and  the  cork.  Place  the  whole  in  a  weak  mer- 
curial solution,  composed  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  4  grains ;  water,  9  quart* ; 
sulphuric  acid,  i  dram ;  which  will  slightly  whiten  the  brass.  Pass 
quickly  through  this  solution  and  then  rinse.  After  the  parts  are 
grained  in  the  manner  described,  they  may  be  gilded  the  same  as  ordi- 
nary work. 

Carat  Baths.  The  plating  baths  of  a  large  establishment  are  made 
up  to  have  the  same  alloy  in  them  as  is  intended  to  be  used  in  the  anode, 
that  is,  iSk,  i6k,  14k,  etc.,  by  adding  cyanide  of  copper  and  cyanide  of 
silver,  or  chloride  of  silver,  to  the  gold  bath  above  described.  Or  it  may 
be  made  by  battery,  as  described  above,  and  any  article  intended  to 
receive  a  certain  quality  of  plate  is  put  into  its  appropriate  bath,  weighed 
from  time  to  time,  and  when  it  has  receiyed  the  allotted  number  of 
pennyweights,  is  given  to  the  finishers. 


Red  Gold.  A  solution  of  copper  cyanide  in  potassium  cyanide  is 
added  to  the  gold  bath  in  small  proportions,  until  it  assumes  the  color 
desired. 

Green  Gold.  Add  cyanide  or  chloride  of  silver  to  the  gold  bath, 
until  it  assumes  the  desired  color;  or  suspend  silver  anodes  beside  the 
gold  anodes. 


149  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

Coloring  is  always  done  -with  pure  gold,  and  the  best  workmen  take 
especial  pains  to  see  that  no  silver  or  copper  is  allowed  in  the  solution. 
They  do  this  bj  using  only  the  best  chemicals,  and  frequently  evaporat- 
ing their  baths  and  parting  out  the  silver  with  nitric  acid.  By  this 
means  they  obtain  an  immense  advantage  over  others,  in  the  brightness 
and  thinness  of  the  coating  of  gold  deposited. 

The  durability  of  gold  plating  does  not  depend  altogether  on  the  time 
it  is  in  the  solution.  If  the  current  is  about  two  to  three  volts  (about 
equal  to  a  Bunsen  cell,  or  two  Smee  cells  connected,  for  intensity)  and 
the  quantity  is  proportioned  to  the  work  in  the  bath,  then  if  the  solution 
be  worked  at  j2o°  to  130°,  which  also  deepens  the  color  of  the  deposit, 
it  is  possible  to  get  a  coat  inside  of  five  minutes  that  will  last  for  several 
years. 

It  is  always  best,  when  other  conditions  are  all  right,  to  keep  the  work 
moving,  and  immerse  the  gold  anode  gradually,  to  suit  the  surface  of 
the  work  that  is  being  plated ;  care  should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the 
work  and  anode  to  touch  each  other,  as  a  black  or  burned  spot  will  be 
left  on  the  work  wherever  the  anode  touches  it. 

After  getting  the  first  slight  coat  of  gold,  the  work  should  be  scratch 
brushed  with  a  fine  brass  scratch  brush  (wire  about  .003  inch),  letting  a 
little  soap  suds  drip  on  the  brush.  This  lays  down  the  first  coat  of  gold, 
which  should  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  article  entirely.  The  scratch 
brush  acts  as  a  burnisher.  After  this  it  is  thoroughly  cleaned  of  the 
soap  suds  in  hot  water,  and  again  placed  in  the  solution.  The  time  it 
remains  will  have  to  be  governed  by  experience,  but  generally  five 
minutes  will  give  a  sufficient  coat  to  stand  burnishing. 

Burnishing  may  be  done  with  steel  and  agate  burnishers,  same  as 
with  silver,  or  the  articles  may  be  polished  with  a  soft  cotton  flannel 
wheel,  run  at  2,500  revolutions  per  minute,  and  bearing  a  very  liUle  of 
the  finest  rouge,  mixed  with  alcohol.  If  you  run  your  wheel  too  slow 
the  layers  of  cotton  will  not  stand  up,  and  you  will  not  get  a  polish ; 
2,500  to  3,000  revolutions  is  about  right,  and  the  pressure  should  be  light 
and  even. 


Silver  Baths.  For  ordinary  plating  7  pennyweights  of  fine  silver  (11 
pennyweights  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  9  pennyweights  of  chloride  of  silver), 
is  dissolved  in  a  solution  of  33  grains  of  9S  per  cent  potassium  cyanide 
in  I  quart  of  water.  For  heavy  silvering  of  knives,  forks,  etc.,  a  stronger 
bath  is  used:  171^  pennyweights  of  fine  silver  (i  oz.,  4  pennyweights  of 
chloride  of  silver,  or  i  oz.  15  grains  of  cyanide  of  silver,)  is  dissolved  in  a 
solution  of  I  oz.  15  pennyweights  of  9S  per  cent  potassium  cyanide  in  i 
quart  of  water.  No  accurate  statement  can  be  made  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  potassium  cyanide  in  the  bath,  as  it  depends  on  the  strength 
of  the  current  used.    With  a  very  weak  current,  and  consequently  slow 


Electro-Plating,  Etc.  160 

precipitation,  somewhat  more  potassium  cyanide  may  be  used  than  with 
a  stronger  current  and  more  rapid  precipitation.  The  anodes,  for  which 
fine  silver  is  used,  will  indicate  by  their  appearance  whether  the  bath 
contains  too  much  or  too  little  potassium  cyanide.  They  should  become 
gray  during  silvering,  and  gradually  resume  their  white  color  after  the 
interruption  of  the  current.  If  they  remain  white  during  silvering,  the 
bath  contains  too  much  potassium  cyanide,  and,  if  they  turn  black,  and 
retain  this  color  after  the  interruption  of  the  current,  potassium  cyanide 
should  be  added. 

The  article  to  be  silvered  should  be  moved  constantly  to  avoid  the 
formation  of  streaks.  Before  silvering  the  metals  must  be  prepared  by 
amalgamation.  This  is  done  by  dipping  the  articles,  previously  freed 
from  grease,  as  explained  above,  in  a  dilute  solution  of  mercurous  nitrate 
(30  to  150  grains  per  qt.)  allowing  them  to  remain  in  the  solution  only 
long  enough  to  become  uniformly  white.  Rinse  them  in  water,  brush 
oS  with  a  clean  soft  brush,  and  immediately  place  in  the  striking  bath. 

Silvering  of  iron  and  steel  is  best  accomplished  by  using  a  striking 
solution  made  as  follows :  ^^  of  an  oz.  of  C.  P.  chloride  silver,  6  oz.  C.  P. 
cyanide  of  potash,  i  gallon  water.  After  thoroughly  cleaning  hang  the 
articles  for  a  few  minutes  in  the  solution,  using  a  large  silver  anode  sur. 
face.  The  hydrogen  gas  should  escape  freely  from  the  surface  of  work 
and  as  soon  as  covered  with  a  yellowish  deposit  of  silver,  which  is  very 
adhesive,  transfer  to  the  standard  solution,  which  can  be  made  from  the 
concentrated  solution.  From  this  no  gas  should  escape,  and  the  anode 
surface  should  be  about  the  same  as  surface  of  work.  A  Bunsen  or 
three  Smee  batteries  connected  for  intensity  can  be  used  for  the  striker, 
and  one  Smee  cell  for  standard  solution,  zinc  surface  of  same  equalling 
that  of  work. 

The  articles  remain  in  the  bath  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  when  they 
show  a  uniformly  white  surface;  they  are  then  taken  out,  scratch- 
brushed  with  a  brass  brush  to  see  that  the  deposit  adheres,  all  grease 
removed,  and  then  placed  in  the  bath.  After  the  current  is  shut  off,  the 
articles  should  be  left  in  the  bath  a  few  seconds  to  prevent  the  deposit 
from  turning  yellow. 

If  the  articles  are  not  to  be  burnished,  but  are  to  be  left  with  a  mat  as 
they  come  from  the  bath,  they  must  be  thoroughly  rinsed  in  water  with- 
out coming  in  contact  with  the  fingers  or  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  then 
dipped  in  clean  hot  water  and  hung  up  to  dry.  They  then  should  be 
coated  with  a  colorless  laquer  to  prevent  turning  yellow.  If  the  articles 
are  to  have  a  polished  surface,  they  are  to  be  finally  scratch-brushed 
with  frequent  moistening  with  soap-root,  dried  in  warm  sawdust  and 
burnished  with  a  steel  or  stone  burnisher. 

Nickel  Baths.  Iron  and  steel  must  be  prepared  by  immersing  in  a 
hot  solution  of  caustic  soda  or  potash,  thoroughly  brushed,  rinsed  in 


161  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

water  and  dipped  in  a  pickle  of  i  part  sulphuric  acid,  2  parts  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  10  parts  of  water,  again  rinsed,  thoroughly  rubbed  with 
fine  well  washed  pumice  stone  or  Vienna  lime,  again  rinsed  and  put  in 
the  bath.  If  finely  polished  tools,  they  may  be  brushed  with  whiting  or 
tripoli  instead  of  pumice  stone.  Copper  wire  should  be  tightly  wound 
around  all  metal  articles.  Small  articles  may  be  suspended  from  copper 
hooks.  The  battery  or  dynamo  is  placed  in  action  before  immersing  the 
articles,  which  remain  in  the  bath  until  they  have  acquired  a  white 
appearance,  which  will  be  in  from  five  to  thirty  minutes,  depending  on 
the  strength  of  the  current  and  the  size  of  the  article.  In  case  the  article 
assumes  a  gray  or  black  color,  or  feels  rough  and  gritty,  the  current  is 
too  strong,  or  if  it  assumes  a  yellowish  white  appearance,  it  is  too  weak. 
The  simplest  nickel  bath  consists  of*  solution  of  pure  double  sulphate 
of  nickel  and  ammonium  8  to  10  parts  by  weight  in  100  parts  of  distilled 
water.  Boil  the  salt  in  a  corresponding  quantity  of  water,  say  8  to  10 
parti  of  nickel-salt  to  100  of  water,  depending  on  the  temperature. 
With  this  bath  cast  nickel  anodes  and  a  strong  current  should  be  used. 
When  a  pure  white  deposit  is  required  on  unpolished  surfaces  the  addi- 
tion of  2  oz.  of  pure  chloride  of  nickel  to  each  gallon  of  the  above  solu- 
tion  is  recommended.  On  an  article  of  iron,  steel,  lead  or  its  alloys  a 
previous  slight  deposit  of  copper  from  a  cyanide  solution  is  advisable.  It 
adds  scarcely  anything  to  the  cost  and  insures  a  uniform  coating  which 
is  not  always  apparent  in  a  deposit  on  a  light  colored  metal.  The  article 
after  its  removal  from  the  bath  should  be  dipped  for  a  few  seconds  in 
boiling  water,  drained  and  dried  in  warm  tawdust.  They  may  then  be 
polished,  but  cannot  be  burnished.  The  luster  on  nickel-plated  objects 
depends  greatly  on  the  polish  given  them  before  plating.  The  composi- 
tion of  nickel  baths  depends  greatly  upon  the  metals  to  be  operated  on, 
which  can  best  be  determined  by  experiment.  The  anodes  should  be 
suspended  by  strong  hooks  of  pure  nickel  wire,  and  the  articles  should 
be  placed  at  a  distance  of  from  3j^  to  4^  inches  from  them.  If  the 
article  is  to  receive  a  thick  deposit,  it  should  be  turned  in  the  bath  from 
time  to  time,  from  end  to  end,  so  that  those  portions  which  were  down 
come  up.  Small  articles  which  cannot  be  suspended  are  placed  in  a 
sieve,  it  being  preferable  to  use  a  heated  bath  for  the  purpose.  Iron, 
steel,  copper,  brass  and  bronze  are  usually  nickeled  directly,  but  Brittan- 
nia  ware,  zinc  and  tin  are  coppered  or  brassed  before  nickeling.  In  case 
a  freshly  prepared  bath  yields  a  dark  deposit  it  can  generally  be  rem- 
edied by  working  the  bath  for  two  or  three  hours. 

Doctoring.  This  term  is  applied  to  plating  .defective  places  which 
occurred  either  by  accident  or  negligence  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 
It  is  equally  applicable  to  gold,  silver  or  nickel  plated  articles.  Take  a 
piece  of  the  anode,  be  it  gold,  silver  or  nickel,  about  the  size  of  your 
little  finger  and  connect  it  with  the  positive  pole  by  a  thin  copper  wire. 


Electro-Plating,  Etc  152 

Around  this  anode  wrap  a  piece  of  ordinary  musHn  several  times;  hold 
the  defective  article  on  the  top  of  the  positive  pole,  and  after  dipping 
the  anode  in  the  solution  until  the  muslin  is  thoroughly  soaked,  move 
it  to  and  fro  over  the  defective  place,  and  a  coating  is  thus  formed. 

Recovery  of  Gold  from  Bath.  To  recover  gold  from  bath  evaporate 
the  bath  to  dryness,  mix  the  residue  with  litharge  and  fuse  the  mixture. 
A  lead  button  is  thus  formed  in  which  all  the  gold  is  contained.  Dis- 
solve the  button  in  nitric  acid,  and  the  gold  will  remain  behind  in  the 
form  of  small  Hakes.    Filter  oB  and  dissolve  the  flakes  in  aqua  regia. 

Recovering  Gold  from  Coloring  Bath.  Dissolve  a  handful  of  sul- 
phate of  iron  in  boiling  water,  and  add  to  it  your  "color"  water;  it  pre- 
cipites  the  small  particles  of  gold.  Now  draw  off  the  water,  being  very 
careful  not  to  disturb  the  auriferous  sediment  at  the  bottom.  You  will 
now  proceed  to  wash  the  sediment  from  all  traces  of  acid  with  plenty 
of  boiling  water;  it  will  require  three  or  four  separate  washings,  with 
sufficient  time  between  each  to  allow  the  water  to  cool  and  the  sediment 
to  settle,  before  passing  oif  the  water.  Then  dry  in  an  iron  vessel  by 
the  fire  and  finally  fuse  in  a  covered  crucible,  with  a  flux- 
Recovery  of  Silver  from  a  Bath.  To  recover  silver  from  cyanide 
bath;  evaporate  the  bath  to  dryness,  mix  the  residue  with  a  small  quan- 
tity of  calcined  soda  and  potassium  cyanide  and  fuse  in  a  crucible,  and 
the  metal  will  be  found  in  the  form  of  a  button  in  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible. 

Antique  Green.  An  imitation  of  antique  bronze  can  be  applied  to 
new  articles  by  the  fohowing  process :  Dissolve  3  parts  of  common  salt, 
I  part  of  sal-ammoniac  and  3  parts  of  powdered  tartar  in  12  parts  of  boil- 
ing water.  Add  8  parts  of  a  solution  of  cupric  nitrate,  and  coat  the 
articles  with  the  liquid. 

Black  Bronze  for  Brass,  i.  Dissolve  one  oz.  of  copper  carbonate  in 
8^  fluid  ounces  of  spirit  of  sal-ammoniac.  Add  one  pint  of  water  and 
stir  constantly.  The  articles  to  be  colored  should  be  suspended  in  the 
liquid  by  means  of  brass  or  copper  wires  for  a  short  time.  The  coating 
adheres  better  if  the  articles  are  polished  with  coarse  emery  paper. 

2.  Brush  the  brass  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury,  and  then 
severaHimes  with  a  solution  of  liver  of  sulphur.* 

Blue  Bronze.  Cleanse  the  metal  from  all  grease  by  dipping  in  boil- 
ing potash  lye  and  afterwards  treat  it  with  strong  vinegar.     Wipe  and 

*  Fused  sulphuret  of  potassium,  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  liver  in  color. 


153  Electro-Plating,  Etc 

dry  the  article  thoroughly,  and  rub  it  with  a  linen  rag,  moistened  with 
hydrochloric  acid.  Allow  the  coating  to  dry  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  then  heat  the  article  on  a  sand  bath,  until  it  assumes  the  desired 
color,  when  it  should  be  removed. 

Bronze  for  Small  Brass  Articles.  Oxide  of  iron,  3  parts ;  white  arse- 
nic, S  parts;  hydrochloric  acid,  36  parts.  Clean  the  brass  thoroughly  and 
apply  with  a  brush  until  the  desired  color  is  obtained.  Oil  well  and 
finish  by  varnishing  or  lacquering. 

Bronze  Liquid.  Dissolve  sal-ammoniac  i  oz. ;  alum,  y^  oz. ;  arsenic, 
^  oz.;  in  strong  vinegar,  i  pt.  The  compound  is  immediately  fit  for 
use,  and,  where  the  metal  is  good,  is  seldom  found  to  fail. 

Bronze  for  Medals.  The  following  process  of  bronzing  is  carried  on 
in  the  Paris  mint.  Powder  and  mix  i  pound  each  of  verdigris  and  sal- 
ammoniac.  Take  a  quantity  of  this  mixture,  as  large  as  a  hen's  ^^^, 
and  mix  into  a  dough  with  vinegar.  Place  this  in  a  copper  pan  (not 
tinned),  boil  in  about  5  pints  of  water  for  20  minutes,  and  then  pour  off 
the  water.  For  bronzing,  pour  part  of  this  fluid  into  a  copper  pan ;  place 
the  medals  separately  in  it  upon  pieces  of  wood  or  glass,  so  that  they  do 
not  touch  each  other,  or  come  in  contact  with  the  copper  pan,  and  then 
boil  them  in  the  liquid  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

Bronze  for  Steel.  Methylated  spirit,  i  pint;  gum  shellac,  4  ounces; 
gum  benzoin,  y^  ounce.  Set  the  bottle  in  a  warm  place,  with  occa- 
sional agitation.  When  dissolved,  decant  the  clear  part  for  fine  work, 
and  strain  the  dregs  through  muslin.  Now  take  4  ounces  powdered 
bronze  green,  varying  the  color  with  yellow  ochre,  red  ochre  and  lamp 
black,  as  may  be  desired.  Mix  the  bronze  powder  with  the  above  var- 
nish in  quantities  to  suit,  and  apply  to  the  work,  after  previously  cleans- 
ing and  warming  the  articles,  giving  them  a  second  coat,  and  touching 
off  with  gold  powder,  if  required,  previous  to  varnishing. 

Brown  Bronze.  Brown  bronze  is  prepared  the  same  as  blue  bronze 
but  the  blue  bronze  is  finally  rubbed  over  with  a  linen  rag  saturated  with 
olive  oil,  which  will  change  the  blue  color  into  brown. 

Brown  Staiil  for  Copper.  To  produce  a  dark-brown  color  upon 
copper,  take  the  white  of  an  egg,  beat  it  into  froth,  add  a  little  boiled  or 
rain  water,  and  add  to  this  mixture  caput  mortuum  (red  oxide  of  iron) ; 
rub  them  well  together  in  a  mortar,  and  sufficiently  thick  until  the  color 
covers,  and  may  be  applied.  The  copper  articles  are  to  be  pickled  and 
simply  washed ;  no  sand  must  be  used,  else  the  color  adheres  badly. 
The  latter  is  next  applied  with  a  brush  until  it  covers  the  surface   it  is 


Electro-Plating,  Etc.  154 

then  dried  by  a  fire,  the  article  is  gently  rubbed  with  a  soft  rag  and 
ca/>ui  mortuum  powder,  and  finally  hammered  with  a  hammer  with  pol- 
ished face. 

Brow^n  Stain  for  Gun  Barrels.  Mix  12  parts  of  a  solution  of  sul- 
phate of  iron,  16  parts  of  sulphate  of  copper,  16  parts  of  sweet  spirit  of 
nitre  and  12  parts  of  butter  of  antimony.  Let  the  mixture  stand  in  a 
well  corked  bottle  for  twenty-four  hours  and  then  add  500  parts  of  rain 
water.  Thoroughly  polish  and  clean  the  barrels,  wash  with  fresh  lime 
water,  dry  thoroughly  and  apply  the  mixture  evenly  with  a  piece  of 
cotton.  After  drying  for  twenty-four  hours,  brush  with  a  scratch  brush 
and  repeat  the  coating.  Do  this  twice,  the  last  time  using  leather 
moistened  with  olive  oil  in  lieu  of  the  scratch  brush,  rubbing  thoroughly. 
After  standing  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  repeat  tlie  polishing  with  sweet 
oil  and  leather  until  a  beautiful  p>olish  is  obtained. 

Chinese  Bronze.  Small  articles  bronzed  by  this  process  possess  a 
peculiar  beauty,  and  lose  none  of  their  luster,  even  when  exposed  to 
atmospheric  influences  and  rain.  Powder  and  mix  thoroughly  2  parts  of 
crystalized  verdigris,  2  parts  of  cinnabar,  2  of  sal-ammoniac,  2  of  bills 
and  livers  of  ducks,  and  5  of  alum.  Moisten  the  mixture  with  water  or 
spirit  of  wine, and  rub  into  a  paste;  cleanse  the  article  to  be  bron«ed  thor- 
oughly, and  polish  with  ashes  and  vinegar.  Then  apply  the  paste  with 
a  brush.  Heat  the  article  over  a  coal  fire,  and  wash  the  coating  off. 
Repeat  this  operation  until  the  desired  brown  color  is  obtained.  By 
adding  blue  vitriol  to  the  mixture,  a  chestnut  brown  color  is  produced, 
while  an  addition  of  borax  gives  a  yellowish  shade. 

Gold  Bronze  for  Iron.  Dissolve  three  ounces  of  finely  powdered 
shellac  in  i  J^  pints  of  spirit  of  wine.  Filter  the  varnish  through  linen 
and  rub  a  sufficient  quantity  of  Dutch  gold  with  the  the  filtrate  to  give  a 
lustrous  color  to  it.  The  iron,  previously  polished  and  heated,  is  brushed 
over  with  vinegar  and  the  color  applied  with  a  brush.  When  dry  the 
article  may  be  coated  with  copal  lacquer  to  which  some  amber  lacquer 
has  been  added. 

Gold  Tinge  to  Silver.  A  bright  gold  tinge  may  be  given  to  silver 
by  steeping  it  for  a  suitable  length  of  time  in  a  weak  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  water,  strongly  impregnated  with  iron  rust. 

Gold-Yellow  Color  on  Brass.  A  gold  like  appearance  may  be 
given  to  brass  by  the  use  of  a  fluid  prepared  by  boiling  for  about  15 
minutes,  4  parts  caustic  soda,  4  parts  milk  sugar,  and  100  parts  of  water, 
after  which  4  parts  concentrated  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  is  added 
with  constant  stirring.    The  mixture  is  then  cooled  to  79°  C,  and  the 


155  Electro-Plating,  Etc. 

previously  well  cleaned  articles  are  for  a  short  time  laid  into  it.  When 
left  in  it  for  some  time  they  will  first  assume  a  blueish  and  then  a  rain- 
bow color. 

Gray  Stain  for  Brass.  Many  black  and  gray  pickles  possess  the 
defect  that  they  give  different  colors  with  different  copper  alloys,  while 
in  the  case  of  certain  alloys  they  refuse  to  act  altogether.  For  instance, 
carbonate  of  copper,  dissolved  in  ammonia,  gives  to  brass  a  handsome, 
dark-gray  color,  while  it  does  not  whatever  attack  various  other  alloys; 
therefore  it  is  little  suitable  for  instruments.  A  dark-gray  pickle,  which 
almost  indiscriminately  stains  all  copper  alloys  a  handsome  gray,  resem- 
bling in  color  the  costly  platinum,  is  composed  by  dissolving  50  grams 
arsenic  in  250  grams  hydrochloric  acid,  and  adding  to  the  solution 
35  grams  chloride  of  antimony  and  35  grams  finely  pulverized 
hammer  scales.  The  articles  to  be  pickled  are  rinsed  in  a  weak, 
warm  soda  solution,  prior  to  as  well  as  after  immersion,  to  be  followed 
by  continued  rinsing  in  water.  The  recipe  is  simple,  and  has  been 
repeatedly  tested  with  uniformly  good  results. 

Green  Bronze  for  Brass.  Add  to  a  solution  of  8  ^  drachms  of  cop- 
per in  one  ounce  of  strong  nitric  acid,  10^  fluid  ounces  of  vinegar,  3^ 
drachms  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  6  ^  drachms  of  aqua-ammonia.  Put  the 
liquid  in  a  loosely  corked  bottle,  and  allow  it  to  stand  in  a  warm  place 
for  a  few  days,  when  it  may  be  used.  After  applying  it  to  the  articles, 
dry  them  by  exposure  to  heat,  and  when  dry,  apply  a  coat  of  linseed  oil 
varnish,  which  is  also  dried  by  heat. 

Imitation  of  Antique  Silver.  The  article  is  dipped  in  a  bath  of 
water  containing  about  10  per  cent  of  sulphide  of  ammonium,  and  then 
scratch  brushed  with  a  brush  made  of  glass  threads  or  bristles.  When 
afterwards  burnished  with  an  agate  tool  its  surface  becomes  a  beautiful 
dark  brown  color. 

Oxidizing  Silver,  i.  Place  the  silver  or  plated  articles  in  a  solution 
of  liver  of  sulphur  diluted  with  spirit  of  sal-ammoniac.  They  are  then 
taken  out,  washed,  dried  and  polished.  This  produces  a  blue-black  tint, 
while  a  solution  of  equal  quantities  of  sal-ammoniac  and  blue  vitrol  in 
vinegar  gives  a  brown  shade. 

2.  Sal-ammoniac,  2  parts;  sulphate  of  copper,  2  parts;  saltpeter,  i 
part.  Reduce  these  ingredients  to  a  fine  powder,  and  dissolve  in  a  little 
acetic  acid.  If  the  article  is  to  be  entirely  oxidized,  it  may  be  dipped  for 
a  short  time  in  the  boiling  mixture;  if  only  in  parts,  it  may  be  applied 
with  a  camel-hair  pencil,  the  article  and  the  mixture  both  being  warmed 
before  using. 


Electro-Plating,  Etc.  156 

3.  There  are  two  distinct  shades  in  use,  one  produced  by  chloride, 
which  has  a  brownish  tint,  and  the  other  by  sulphur,  which  has  a  bluish- 
black  tint.  To  produce  the  former  it  is  only  necessary  to  work  the 
article  with  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac;  a  much  more  beautiful  tint, 
however,  may  be  obtained  by  employing  a  solution  composed  of  equal 
parts  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  sal-ammoniac  in  vinegar.  The  fine 
black  tint  may  be  produced  by  a  slightly  warm  solution  of  sulphate  of 
potassium  or  sodium. 

Silvering  for  Copper  or  Brass.  Mix  i  part  of  chloride  of  silver 
with  3  parts  of  pearl  ash,  i^  parts  common  salt,  and  one  part  whiting; 
and  well  rub  the  mixture  on  the  surface  of  brass  or  copper  (previously 
w^ell  cleaned),  by  means  of  a  piece  of  soft  leather,  or  a  cork  moistened 
with  water  and  dipped  in  the  powder.  When  properly  silvered,  the 
metal  should  be  well  washed  in  hot  water,  slightly  alkalized,  then  wiped 
dry. 

2.  Mix  three  parts  of  chloride  of  silver  with  20  parts  finely  pulverized 
cream  tartar,  and  15  parts  culinary  salt.  Add  water  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity, and  stir  until  the  mixture  forms  a  paste,  with  which  cover  the  sur- 
face  to  be  silvered  by  means  of  blotting  paper.  The  surface  is  then 
rubbed  with  a  rag  and  powdered  lime,  washed,  and  rubbed  with  a  piece 
of  soft  cloth.     The  deposited  film  is  extremely  thin. 

Silvering  Small  Iron  Articles.  The  small  iron  articles  are  sus- 
pended in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  until  the  iron  shows  a  bright  clean  sur- 
face. After  rinsing  in  pure  water,  they  are  placed  in  a  bath  of  mixed 
solution  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  sulphate  of  copper,  and  cyanide  of  potassium, 
and  there  remain  until  they  receive  a  bright  coating  of  brass.  Lastly 
they  are  transferred  to  a  bath  of  nitrate  of  silver,  cyanide  of  potassium, 
and  sulphate  of  soda,  in  which  they  quickly  receive  a  coating  of  silver. 

Silver  Plating  Without  a  Battery,  i.  The  process  consists  in 
exposing  the  article,  which  has  previously  been  well  cleansed  with  a 
potash  solution  and  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  to  the  operation  of  a  silver 
bath,  which  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner:  Form  a  solution  of 
32  grams  (i  oz.,  13.S  grains)  nitrate  of  silver,  20  grams  silver  (12  dwts., 
20.6  grains)  in  60  (  i  oz.,  18  dwts.,  13.9  grains)  grams  nitric  acid.  The 
silver  is  precipitated  as  silver  oxide  with  a  solution  of  20  grams  solid  caus- 
tic potash  in  50  grams  (i  oz.,  12  dwts.,  3.6  grains)  distilled  water,  care- 
fully washed,  and  the  precipitate  taken  up  by  a  solution  of  100  grams  (3 
oz.,  4  dwts.,  7.2  grains)  cyanide  of  potassium  in  500  grams  distilled  water. 
The  fluid,  distilled  through  paper,  is  finally  diluted  with  distilled  water 
to  2  liters  (4}^  pints).  The  thus  prepared  silver  bath  is  gently  warmed 
in  the  water  bath,  and  the  article  to  be  silver  plated  laid  in  it  and  kept  in 
motion  for  a  few  minutes,  and  after  taking  out  it  is  dried  in  sawdust, 
and  then  polished  with  Vienna  chalk  for  giving  luster. 


157  Emery. 

2.  For  rapid  silver  plating,  prepare  a  powder  of  3  parts  of  chloride  of 
silver,  20  parts  carefully  pulverized  cream  of  tartar,  and  15  parts  pul- 
verized cooking  salt;  mix  it  into  a  thin  paste  with  water,  and  rub  it  upon 
the  well  cleaned  metallic  surface  with  blotting  paper.  After  you  are 
certain  that  all  parts  of  the  article  have  been  touched  alike,  rub  it  with 
very  fine  chalk  or  dust  upon  wadding  or  other  soft  cloth.  Wash  with 
clean  water  and  dry  with  a  cloth. 

3.  Dissolve  I  oz  nitrate  of  silver,  in  crystals,  in  12  ozs.,  soft  water; 
then  dissolve  in  the  water  2  ozs.  cyanide  of  potash,  shake  the  whole 
together,  and  let  it  stand  until  it  becomes  clear.  Have  ready  some  half- 
ounce  vials,  and  fill  half  full  with  Paris  white,  or  fine  whiting,  and  then 
fill  up  the  bottles  with  the  liquid,  and  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  whiting 
does  not  increase  the  coating  power,  it  only  helps  to  clean  the  article, 
and  save  the  silver  fluid. 

4.  Make  a  solution  of  4  ounces  lunar  caustic  (equal  to  a  solution  2^ 
ounces  silver  in  7J^  ounces  nitric  acid); the  silver  of  this  solution  is  pre- 
cipitated as  an  oxide  of  silver  by  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  2^  ounces 
of  caustic  potash  in  6^  ounces  distilled  water;  and  the  precipitate,  after 
being  washed,  is  added  to  a  solution  of  12^  ounces  of  cyanide  of  pot- 
assium in  one  quart  of  water.  This  solution  is  then  filtered  and  water 
added  to  bring  it  to  4  quarts.  In  this  solution,  which  is  heated  on  the 
water  bath,  the  pieces  to  be  silvered  are  left  for  a  few  minutes.  Being 
agitated,  they  are  taken  out,  and  put  to  dry  in  fine  sawdust  and  then 
polished. 

Steel-Blue  on  Brass.  Dissolve  1%  drachms  of  antimony  sulphide 
and  2  ounces  calcined  soda  in  ^  pint  of  water.  Add  2^^  drachms  of 
kermes,  filter,  and  mix  this  solution  with  another  of  2%_  drachms  of 
tartar,  5^^  drachms  of  sodium  hyposulphite  and  }£  pint  of  water.  Pol- 
ished sheet  brass  placed  in  the  warm  mixture  assumes  a  beautiful  steel- 
blue. 

To  Give  Copper  a  Durable  Luster.  Place  the  copper  articles  in  a 
boiling  solution  of  tartar  and  water  for  fifteen  minutes.  Remove,  rinse 
off  with  cold  water  and  dry. 

ELLICOTT,  JOHN.  A  celebrated  London  clockmaker.  He  was 
born  in  1700,  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  173S,  and 
published  a  work  on  pendulums  in  1751.  He  invented  a  compensation 
pendulum  in  1753,  in  which  the  bob  rested  on  the  longer  ends  of  two 
levers,  of  which  the  shorter  ends  are  depressed  by  the  superior  expansion 
of  a  brass  bar  attached  to  the  pendulum  rod.  The  invention,  however 
has  not  proved  of  any  practical  value.     He  died  in  1772. 

EMERY.  The  dark  colored  and  non-transparent  variety  of  corun- 
dum.    See  Corundum. 


End  Stone.  158 

Emery  Countersinks.    See  Countersinks. 

Emery  Files,  Pencils  and  Sticks.  Emery  files  are  to  be  had  read}' 
made  from  all  material  dealers  and  consist  of  wooden  handles  to  which 
emery  cloth  is  glued.  Emery  pencils  are  kept  by  some  dealers  and  will 
be  found  very  useful  for  grinding  the  inside  of  metal  objects,  and  also 
on  small  work  of  various  kinds,  being  easy  to  handle,  clean  and  light 
Emery  sticks  are  of  two  kinds,  solid  square  sticks  and  round  and  square 
sticks  of  wood  to  which  emery  paper  or  cloth  is  glued.  Emery  paper 
and  cloth  may  be  had  from  most  material  dealers,  varying  from  oooo  to 
No.  4. 

Emery  Wheels.  Wheels  of  solid  emery  or  wooden  wheels,  to  the 
surface  of  which  emery  paste  has  been  applied.  The  best  wheels 
for  watchmakers'  use  are  the  solid  wheels  in  which  vulcanite  is  the 
cementing  medium.  They  may  be  had  from  material  dealers  generally 
or  from  dental  supply  houses,  in  sizes  varying  from  >^x^  in.  to  3^x^ 
in.    A  set  of  three  or  more  of  these  wheels  will   prove  very  valuable 


Fig.  126. 

adjuncts  to  the  watchmaker's  bench  for  grinding  dials  to  allow  freedom 
of  motion  for  wheels  in  fitting  new  dials;  for  grinding  milling  cutters, 
drills,  gravers,  etc.  As  purchased  from  dealers  these  wheels  have  a 
central  hole,  by  means  of  which  they  can  be  mounted  for  use  by  the 
watchmaker  as  follows :  Turn  down  a  piece  of  No.  30,  Stubbs'  steel  wire, 
to  the  size  of  the  opening  in  your  wheel  and  rivet  your  wheel  firmly 
upon  it,  as  shown  in  Fig.  126.  It  can  then  be  used  in  your  lathe  very 
handily,  either  with  or  without  water.  The  best  sizes  for  watchmakers 
use  are  ^  in.,  i  in.  and  \%.  in.  diameter. 

END  STONE.  The  small  stone  disc  on  which  a  watch  pivot  rests, 
applied  principally  to  escapement  and  balance  pivots!  Jewels  with  end 
stones  are  known  as  capped  jewels. 

ENGINE  TURNING.  The  wavy,  curved  lines  used  as  decorations 
for  watch  cases.     See  Rose  Engine. 

ENGRAVING  BLOCKS.  A  mechanical  device  for  holding  coins, 
jewelry,  silverware,  etc.,  while  engraving.     Fig.  137  is  the  usual  form 


159 


Epicycloid. 


given  to  engraving  blocks  and  is  known  as  the  flat  base  variety.  Fig. 
128  has  what  is  known  as  the  cannon-ball  base,  but  the  holding  devices 
are  similar  to  the  flat  base.  Various  attachments  are  furnished  for  hold- 
ing rings,  spoons,  coins,  etc. 

EPICYCLOID.  A  curve  generated  by  a  point  in  the  circumference 
of  a  movable  circle,  as  it  rolls  upon  another  circle.  The  teeth  of  driving 
wheels  are  usually  of  this  form. 


Fig.  127. 

EQUATION    OF   TIME, 
apparent,  or  solar,  time. 


Fig.  12s. 

The    difference    between    mean    and 


ESCAPEMENT.  The  mechanical  device  in  a  watch  or  clock 
by  which  the  motion  of  the  train  is  controlled  so  that  the  power 
may  be  distributed  uniformly.  Saunier  divides  escapements  into  three 
principal  classes :  Recoil,  Dead  Beat  and  Detached,  i.  Recoil  escape, 
ments  are  so  classed,  because  at  a  certain  period  of  this  action,  the  wheel 
moves  backward  or  recoils  in  a  manner  more  or  less  marked.  The 
verge  escapement  in  watches  and  certain  forms  of  the  anchor  in  clocks, 
may  be  used  as  examples. 

2.  Dead  Beat  escapements  are  so  called  because  except  during  the 
actual  impulsion,  the  wheel  remains  stationary,  a  point  being  supported 
either  against  the  axis  of  the  balance  itself,  or  against  the  accessory  piece, 
concentric  with  this  axis,  which  catches  it  in  its  movement  of  rotation. 
The  cylinder  and  duplex  escapements  in  watches  and  the  pin  and  Graham 
escapements  in  clocks  are  examples  of  this  class. 


Escape  Pinion.  160 

3.  Detached  escapements  may  be  called  Dead  Beat  escapements,  but 
their  principal  characteristic  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  balance  per- 
forms its  vibration  in  absolute  independence  of  the  wheel,  except  during 
the  very  brief  periods  of  impulse  and  unlocking.  The  wheel,  then,  does 
not  rest  on  the  axis  of  the  balance,  but  on  an  intern. ediate  and  distinct 
piece.  The  lever  escapement  in  watches,  the  detent  escapement  in 
chronometers,  as  well  as  several  forms  of  escapements  employed  in 
clocks,  come  under  this  head.  See  Anchor,  Chronometer,  Cylinder,  Dead 
Beat,  Duplex,  Graham,  Pin  Pallet,  Pin  Wheel  and  Verge. 

ESCAPE  PINION.     The  pinion  on  the  escape  wheel  staff. 

ESCAPING  ARC.  The  angle  included  in  the  oscillation  of  a 
pendulum  or  lever  from  the  timf;  one  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel 
passes  from  one  pallet  to  the  next. 

EYE  GLASS.  Eye  glasses  for  -watchmaker's  use  are  mounted  in 
many  different  styles.  Some  have  horn,  others  have  vulcanite  and  still 
others  cork  mountings.  The  vulcanite  mounted  glass  with  a  light  spring 
attached  to  sustain  it  in  place  is  very  popular  with 
apprentices.  The  Clark  patent  glass,  shown  in  Fig.  129, 
is  becoming  very  popular  in  this  country.  It  is  provided 
with  an  annular  reflector,  with  a  central  opening  and 
corrugations,  and  so  seated  in  the  outer  end  of  the  glass 
as  to  reflect  the  rays  of  light  falling  on  the  outside  of  it  ^ 

in  front  of  the  glass,  and  concentrating  them  upon  the 
object  being  viewed.     It  is  especially  us-eful  in  examin-  ^^^'  ^^^' 

ing  the  inside  of  watches,  as  it  oflen  occurs  that  it  is  difficult  to  get 
light  sufficient  to  do  so. 

FACIO,  NICHOLAS.  A  native  of  Geneva,  who  discovered  the  art 
oi  piercing  holes  in  rubies,  garnets  and  other  stones.  He  first  went  to 
P«a-i8  and  from  there,  in  i/co,  v;ent  to  London,  and  there  with  the  brothers 
Peter  and  Jacob  de  Beaufre  carried  on  the  business  of 
watch  jewelling.  A  patent  on  his  process  of  piercing 
jewels  was  granted  to  him  in  England  in  May,  1704. 


FERGUSON,  JAMES.  A  celebrated  astronomer 
and  mechanician.  He  was  born  in  the  year  17 10,  a  few 
miles  from  Keith,  a  little  village  in  Banffshire,  in  the 
north  of  Scotland.  Ferguson  can  hardly  be  classed 
among  horologists,  although  he  made  many  improve- 
James  Ferguson,  ments  in  the  clocks  of  his  day  and  many  inventions  in 
\his  line.  In  the  year  1750  Ferguson  invented  and  made  his  celebrated 
machine,  known  as  the  "Mechanical  Paradox."     This  curious  machine 


161 


Ferrule. 


was  made  for  the  purpose  of  silencing  a  London  watchmaker  'who  did 
not  believe  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The  paradox,  which  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  131,  is  described  by  Ferguson  as  follows:  "A  is  called 
the  immovable  plate,  because  it  lies  on  a  table  whilst  the   machine  is  at 


Fig.  131. 

work ;  B  C  is  a  moveable  frame  to  be  turned  round  an  upright  axis  a 
(fixt  in  the  centre  of  the  immoveable  plate)  by  taking  hold  of  the  nob  «. 
^^W  On   the    said  axis  is   fixt   the  immoveable 

^^    I  ^^  wheel    D  whose  teeth  take  into  the  teeth 

.<wfa^t>ftajc^ .  Qf  (^j^g  thick  moveable  wheel  E,  and  turns 

it  round  its  own  axis  as  the  frame  is  turned 
round  the  fixt  axis  of  the  immoveable  wheel 
D  and  in  the  same  direction  that  the  frame 
is  moved.  The  teeth  of  the  thick  wheel  E 
take  equally  deep  into  the  teeth  of  the 
three  wheels,  F,  G  and  H,  but  operate  on 
these  wheels  in  such  a  manner,  that  whilst 
the  frame  is  turned  round,  the  wheel  H 
turns  i/ie  same  -uay  that  the  wheel  E  does, 
the  wheel  G  turns  iie  contrary  way,  and 
the  wheel  F  no  -nay  at  all"  Fig.  132 
illustrates  what  Ferguson  termed  "a  one- 
wheeled  clock."  The  drawing  he  made  in 
1774  and  there  was  no  description  accom- 
panying it,  simply  these  few  w-ords :  "  The 
number  of  wheels  in  a  clock  reduced  to 
one,  by  means  of  a  double  'scapement." 
This  is  a  problem  for  the  ingenious  watch 
or  clock  maker  to  solve.  James  Ferguson 
died  Nov.  16,  1776. 


Fig.  132. 


FERRULE.     The  small  pulley  or  wheel  around  which  the  string  of 
a  bow  is  wound  when  giving  motion  to  a  piece  of  work.     See  also  ColUt. 


Files. 


163 


FETIL,  PIERRE.  A  noted  French  Watchmaker,  born  at  Nantes 
in  1753,  and  died  at  Orleans  May  18,  1S14. 

FILES.  Files  for  watchmakers'  use  are  made  in  every  conceivable 
shape,  and  in  sizes  from  that  of  a  fine  cambric  needle  to  i  x  J^  in.  The 
various  styles  are  known  as  flat,  pillar,  joint,  three-cornered,  knife,  round, 
half  round,  oval,  square,  smooth  cut,  barrette,  warding,  conical,  slitting, 
pivot,  ratchet,  screwhead,  escapement,  etc.  Escapement  files  are  usually 
put  up  in  sets  of  twelve  assorted  shapes.  The  average  American  has  a 
tendency  to  be  extravagant,  and  in  no  trade  or  calling  is  this  extra- 
vagance better  exemplified  than  in  that  of  the  watchmaker  and  particu- 
larly in  the  matter  of  files.  Many  watchmakers'  benches  will  be  found, 
in  the  drawers  of  which,  from  one  to  two  dozen  files  will  be  found,  and 
out  of  all  that  number,  not  to  exceed  six  will  be  in  anything  like  respec- 
table shape  for  good  work.  This  is  not  occasioned  by  the  poor  quality 
of  the  goods  used  in  this  country,  because  eight  out  of  every  ten  files 
used  by  watchmakers  are  of  French,  Swiss  or  English  manufacture,  and 
cost  the  American  more  money  than  his  European  brother,  but  rather 
from  a  careless  handling  of  these  tools,  from  a  want  of  training.  The 
skilled  European  watchmaker  serves  a  long  apprenticeship  to  a  master 
who  insists  that  he  first  becomes  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  file,  then 
the  graver,  etc  ,  before  he  is  allowed  to  work  upon  a  clock  or  watch.  In 
this  way  he  acquires  a  proficency  in  the  use  of  tools  which  the  average 
young  American  watchmaker  is  a  stranger  to.  The  American  watch- 
maker will  employ  a  new  file  upon  steel  work,  whereas,  the  European 
first  employs  a  new  file  in  working  brass  or  copper  and  even  then 
handles  it  very  carefully.  He  would  no  more  think  of  using  a  new  file 
upon  steel  work  than  he  would  of  flying.  A  new  file,  if  carefully  used, 
and  gradually  advanced  from  a  soft  to  a  hard  metal,  will  at  the  end  of 
six  months,  be  a  much  better  file  for  steel  work  than  a  new  one,  and  will 
last  four  times  as  long.  When  the  surface  of  a  file  becomes  chocked 
with  particles  of  steel,  iron  or  brass,  Saunier  advises  that  it  be  cleaned  as 
follows:  Place  the  file  for  a  few  seconds  in  hot  potash  and  water,  and  on 
withdrawal,  dry  it  before  the  fire  and  brush  the  surface  with  a  stiff  brush. 
If  the  file  has  a  tendency  to  fill  up,  slightly  oil  the  surface  by  means  of 
a  linen  rag. 

FILING  BLOCK.     A  contrivance  made  to  take  the  place  of  the 


Fig.  13S. 
filing  rest,  -which  was  made  of  boxwood  or  bone.    It  consists  of  a  c  vlindet 


163  Filing  Fixture. 

of  hardened  steel  rivetted  upon  a  staff  which  in  turn  enters  a  split  socket. 
The  surface  of  the  steel  cylinder  is  grooved  with  various  sizes  of  grooves 
for  the  different^izes  of  wire,  or  to  suit  any  work,  as  »hown  in  Fig.  133. 
The  cylinder  is  revolved  until  the  desired  size  groove  is  brought  upper- 
most, when  the  split  socket  is  placed  between  the  jaws  of  a  vise,  and  the 
vice  closed,  thus  holding  the  cylinder  in  the  desired  position.  Fig.  133 
illustrates  Mr.  Ide's  patent  block  which  is  well  made  and  of  superior 
material. 

FILING  FIXTURE  OR  REST.     These  rests  will  be  found  very 
convenient  in  squaring  winding  aibors,  center  squares,  etc.     There  are 
several  makes  of  these  tools,  but  they  are  all  built  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple, that  of  two  hardened  steel  rollers  on  which  the 
file  rests,  and  Fig.  134  is  a  fair  example.     One  pattern 
is  made  to  fit  in  the  hand  rest  after  the  T  is  removed, 
while  the  other  is  attached  to  the  bed  of  the  lathe  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  slide  rest.     The  piece  to  be 
squared  is  held  in  the  split  or  spring  chuck   in   the 
lathe,  and  the  index  on  the  pulley  is  used  to  divide 
Fig.  I3i.  the  square  correctly.      Any  article  can  be  filed  to  a 

perfect  square,  hexagon  or  octagon  as  may  be  desired.  The  arm  carry- 
ing the  rollers  can  be  raised  or  lowered  as  required  for  adjustment  to 
work  of  various  sizes. 

FLUX.  A  mixture  or  compound  to  promote  the  fusion  of  metals; 
used  in  assaying,  refining  and  soldering,  as  alkalies,  borax,  etc. 

FLY  OR  FAN.  A  fan  having  two  blades,  used  for  preserving  the 
uniformity  of  motion,  as  in  music-boxes  and  the  striking  mechanism  of 
clocks.  The  resistance  of  the  air  on  the  fan  blades  prevents  the  train 
from  accelerating. 

FOLLOWER.  Where  two  wheels  are  toothed  together  the  one  that 
imparts  the  power  is  known  as  the  driver,  and  the  one  receiving  the 
power  is  called  the  follower. 

FOOT  WHEEL,  In  the  selection  of  a  foot  wheel  the  workman 
must  be  governed  by  his  own  experience  and  taste,  for,  like  cigars,  the 
variety  that  exactly  suits  one  person  is  very  distasteful  to  another. 
Some  workman  prefer  a  treadle  having  a  heel  and  toe  motion,  while 
others  prefer  a  swing  treadle  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  135. 

FOURTH  WHEEL.  The  wheel  that  imparts  motion  to  the  escape 
pinion,  the  second  hand  being  attached  to  the  wheel. 

FRICTION.  The  resistance  which  a  moving  body  meets  with  from 
the  surface  of  the  body  on  which  it  moves ;  is  caused  by  the  unevenness 


Frictional  Escapements. 


164 


of  the  surfaces,  combined  with  some  other  causes,  such  as  natural 
attraction,  magnetism,  etc.  It  varies  as  does  the  weight  or  pressure 
applied  and  is  independent  of  surfaces  in  contact,  but  if  the  surfaces  are 
disproportionate  to  the  pressure,  rapid  abrasion  will  be  the  result,  which 
in  its  turn  produces  uneven  surfaces  and  tends  to  increase  the  friction. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  abrasion  of 
the  surface  a  lubricant  is  applied, 
either  in  the  shape  of  oil  or  plumba- 
go which,  spreading  itself  over  the 
surfaces  of  the  bodies,  interposes  a 
film  between  the  two  acting  surfaces, 
and  this  film,  especially  in  light 
bodies,  has  a  greater  retarding  influ- 
ence than  mere  friction  itself.  In 
such  cases  the  acting  surfaces  are 
made  very  minute,  as  in  balance 
staff  pivots,  etc.  In  these  pivots  the 
resistance  arising  from  the  lubricant 
is  usually  greater  than  that  of  the 
friction  proper,  and  it  graduUy  in- 
creases  as  the  lubricant  becomes 
viscid.  For  this  reason  plumbago  is 
advocated  as  a  lubricant  in  large 
machines,  as  it  does  not  become 
viscid  and  is  an  excellent  lubricant. 
It  is  not  applicable,  however,  for 
watch  or  clock  work.  From  the 
above  it  is  apparent  that  a  light 
bodied  or  thin  lubricant  is  desirable  on  small  bearings,  such  as 
balance  pivots,  while  as  the  barrel  or  power  is  approached  and  larger 
surfaces  used  the  lubricant  should  be  of  a  heavier  body,  or  thicker.  The 
nearer  that  a  revolving  surface  is  to  its  center  of  motion  the  less  the 
friction.  It  is  therefore  essential  where  extra  surface  is  desired  that  the 
surfaces  be  increased  in  length,  and  that  the  diameter  of  a  pivot  be  not 
increased  for  if  the  diameter  be  doubled  the  resistance  is  doubled,  as  the 
acting  surface  is  twice  the  distance  from  the  center  of  motion. 


Fig.  135. 


FRICTIONAL  ESCAPEMENTS.  Those  escapements  in  which 
the  balance  is  never  free  or  detached  from  the  escapement.  In  contra- 
distinction to  the  detached  escapement.  The  duplex,  cylinder  or  verge 
are  examples  of  frictional  escapements. 


FRODSHAM,  CHARLES.  A  skillful  and  successful  watchmaker 
of  London  and  the  author  of  several  valuable  works  on  watchmaking. 
He  was  born  in  1810  and  died  in  1871. 


165  Frosting. 

FROSTING.  The  matted  or  rough  surface  sometimes  given  to 
work  before  gilding  or  silvering.  See  Electro  Platings  Bronzing  and 
Staining.  The"  gray  surface  produced  on  steel  work  of  watches  is 
also  known  as  frosting,  though  more  commonly  called  graying. 

FULL  PLATE.  A  term  applied  to  movements  having  a  full  top 
plate  and  the  balance  above  the  plate. 

FUZEE.  A  brass  cone,  as  shown  in  Figure  136,  having  a  spiral 
groove  cut  on  it  to  hold  the  chain,  and  interposed  between  the 
barrel  and  center  pinion  of  a  watch  for  the  purpose  of  equaliz- 
ing the  pull  of  the  mainspring  and  converting  it  into  a  constant 
force.  The  pull  of  the  mainspring  is  greater  when  wound  around 
the  barrel  arbor  than  when  it  has  expanded  to  the  circumference 


Fig.  136. 

ot  the  barrel.  The  principle  of  its  construction  is  that  by  winding  the 
fuzee  chain  upon  its  cone  the  mainspring  is  wound,  and  the  greatest 
pull  comes  upon  the  smaller  end  of  the  cone,  and  as  the  pull  becomes 
less  by  the  unwinding  of  the  mainspring,  the  leverage  (by  means  of 
the  chain  unwinding  from  a  smaller  to  a  larger  cone)  increases,  and 
the  rate  of  its  increase  constitutes  a  perfect  adjustment  of  the  main- 
spring. The  f'lzee  chain  was  first  introduced  by  Gruet  of  Geneva  in 
1664.  The  fuzee  is  held  in  great  esteem  by  English  watchmakers, 
and  possesses  many  excellent  points,  although  not  employed  in  any 
American  made  watch. 

Saunier  says  "  The  power  of  selecting  the  best  series  of  turns  to 
include  within  the  limits  of  the  stopwork  is  so  important  that  it  must 
be  regarded  as  the  reason  for  the  retention  of  the  fuzee  in  chronom- 
eters; because  with  the  fuzee  we  can  secure  with  certainty  a  rather 
longer  period  of  going  and  a  mainspring  the  uncoiling  of  which  takes 
place  under  the  best  possible  conditions.  This  last  observation  is  of 
the  highest  importance,  so  much  so  that  it  alone  should  settle  the 
discussion  between  the  advocates  of  the  fuzee  and  of  the  going 
barrel.  It  explains  why  pocket  chronometers,  unless  they  have 
enormous  barrels,  cannot  do  without  a  fuzee.  It  justifies  the  English 
makers,  who  in  their  splendid  high-class  watches,  with  such  excellent 
rates,  have  retained  it;  but  they  make  an  error  when  they  put  it  in 
watches  of  the  commoner  class."     Glasgow  says,  "  Considering  the 


Galileo. 


166 


great  ease  with  which  an  ordinary  marine  chronometer  mainspring  with 
a  fuzee  can  be  perfectly  adjusted,  without  any  chance  of  resistance 
from  adhesion  or  clustering,  it  seems  strange  that  these  men  (refer- 
ing  to  Jurgensen  and  Robert),  who  were  so  well  acquainted  with  the 
superiority  of  the  fuzee,  should  have  devoted  so  much  time  to  experi- 
ments with  going  barrel  chronometers,  and  it  is  a  question  whether 
this  persistence  in  trying  to  supercede  the  fuzee  adjustment  in  marine 
chronometers  has  not  lost  this  branch  of  the  trade  to  France." 
Glasgow  further  says,  "  Notwithstanding  the  growing  disposition 
amongst  modern  English  watchmakers  to  praise  and  adopt  that 
going  barrel,  all  the  old  French  watchmakers  and  writers  on  the 
subject  agree  as  to  the  superiority  of  the  fuzee  and  the  tapered  main- 
spring with  a  rigid  attachment  to  the  barrel." 

GALILEO.    A  celebrated  mathematician,  born  1564,  who  discov- 


Fig.  137. 

ered  the  use    of    the   pendulum.      It    is    related  that    one    morn- 
ing he  was  in  church  and  saw  a  lamp  which  was  suspended  by  a 


167 


Gas  Heater. 


silken  cord  from  the  ceiling,  swinging  to  and  fro  after  having  tjeen 
carelessly  struck  by  one  of  the  attendants.  He  noticed  the  regularity 
of  the  swing,  comparing  it  with  his  pulse,  and  concluded  that,  by 
reason  of  its  regularity,  a  simple  pendulum  might  become  a  valuable 
agent  in  the  measurement  of  time.  In  1639,  he  published  a  treatise 
on  the  use  of  the  pendulum  in  clocks,  but  there  is  no  record  of  his 
having  made  one.  The  credit  of  actually  putting  a  pendulum  in  a  clock 
has  been  claimed  for  Richard  Harris,  of  London,  1641 ;  Vincent 
Galileo,  son  of  the  philosopher,  1649;  and  Huyghens,  1657.  The  weight 
of  the  evidence  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  Huyghens  as  being  the  first  to 
apply  the  Galilean  theory  in  practice,  but  it  is  beyond  dispute  that  the 
invention  of  the  pendulum  belongs  to  Galileo. 


GAS  HEATER,  This  heater,  shown  in  Fig.  13S,  is  to  take  the  place 
of  a  forge  in  heating  and  tempering  small  articles.  With  a  full 
pressure  of  gas,  a  piece  of  steel  half  an  inch  in  diameter 
can  be  heated  sufficiently  to  harden  in  about  six  minutes. 
It  does  not  heat  to  a  degree  that  will  injure  the  quality  of 
steel ;  which  makes  it  very  valuable  for  heating  small  pieces. 
Watchmakers  will  find  in  its  use  great  convenience  as  well 
as  economy  of  time  and  fuel ;  and  also,  that  tools  heated  by 
it  will  be  tougher  than  when  heated  in  a  forge  in  the  usual 
way. 

Put  on  sufficient  gas  to  prevent  the  flame  from  descend- 
ing into  the  tube.  For  heating  larger  pieces  the  flame 
should  be  nearly  three  inches  wide.  The  upper  ends  of  the 
curved  side  pieces  should  not  be  more  than  one-quarter  of 
an  inch  apart.  The  article  to  be  heated  should  be  held  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  flame  above  the  central  blue  part 
and  parallel  with  it.  The  larger  the  piece  to  be  heated  the 
further  it  should  extend  into  the  flame.  The  heater  should 
be  located  in  a  dark  place,  and  supports  may  be  provided 
for  greater  convenience  in  heating  heavy  articles. 


GAUGE.  An  instrument  for  determining  dimensions  or  capacity. 
The  watchmaker  cannot  be  too  careful  in  the  selection  of  his  measuring 
instruments,  as  accuracy  and  perfection  in  watchmaking  are  essential 
elements  to  success.  Accuracy  is  more  essential  than  finish,  though 
both  are  desirable;  still  a  movement  that  is  accurate  may  be  a  fine  time- 
keeper, although  it  may  be  lacking  in  finish  and  not  artistic  to  look 
upon.  Measuring  instruments  of  all  kinds  should  be  handled  with 
care,  and  in  the  more  delicate  ones  cleanliness  also  plavs  an  important 
part.  You  cannot  expect  accurate  results  from  a  fine  Vernier  caliper 
that  is  recklessly  thrown  into  a  heap  of  other  tools  upon  the  bench.  It 
should  be  carefully  handled,  and  when  you  are  through   using  it  you 


Gauge. 


168 


should  carefully  wipe  it  and  place  it  in  some  drawer  in  your  bench, 
where  it  will  not  be  mutilated  by  being  jammed  against  other  tools. 

Douzieme.  A  measuring  tool  having  two  limbs  hinged  together 
similar  to  a  pair  of  scissors.  One  of  the  limbs  terminates  in  a  pointer 
that  indicates -upon  a  scale  the  extent  to  which  the  jaws  are  opened. 
The  true  Douzieme  gauge  has  a  scale  divided^into  twelfths,  though  some 
patterns  are  now  made  that  have  a  scale  divided  into  tenths  and 
hundreds  of  an  inch,  and  again  there  are  others  that  measure  the  frac- 
tions of  a  millimeter.    This  tool  is  useful  for  taking  measurements  of 


Fig.  139. 

all  kinds.  For  example,  we  will  suppose  that  the  watchmaker  is  putting 
in  a  new  balance  staff;  we  will  take  it  for  granted  that  the  upper  part  of 
the  staff  is  entirely  finished  and  that  he  is  ready  to  find  the  total  length 
that  the  staff  should  be.  He  takes  the  top  plate  with  the  balance  cock 
and  potance  attached,  and  measures  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the  cock 
hole  jewel  to  top  of  potance  hole  jewel  by  means  of  this  gauge.  He 
places  the  jaw  a  on  potance  jewel  and  d  on  cock  jewel,  and  notes  the 
number  on  the  scale  that  the  pointer  is  opposite,  which  is  generally  30 
for  an  18  inch  size  full  plate  American  movement. 


169 


Gauge. 


Micrometer  Caliper.  Fig.  140  is  a  full  size  cut  of  the  Brown  &  Sharp 
Mfg.  Co.'s  micrometer  caliper.  It  measures  from  one-thousandth  of  an 
inch  to  one-half  inch.  It  is  graduated  to  read  to  thousandths  of  an 
inch,  but  one-half  and  one-quarter  thousandths  are  readily  estimated. 
This  instrument  is  also  graduated  to  the  hundredths  of  a  millimeter, 
but  when  so  graduated  the  table  of  decimal  equivalents  is  omitted. 
They  are  also  made  to  read  to  ten-thousandths  of  an  inch.  The  edges 
of  the  measuring  surfaces  are  not  beveled,  but  are  left  square,  as  it  is 
more  convenient  for  measuring  certain  classes  of  work.  It  will  gauge 
under  a  shoulder  or  measure  a  small  projection  on   a  plain  surface. 


Fig.  140. 


Watchmakers  will  especially  appreciate  micrometers  of  this  form.  This 
tool  will  be  found  very  useful  for  gauging  mainsprings,  pinions,  etc. 
In  the  caliper,  shown  by  cut,  the  gauge  or  measuring  screw  is  cut  on  the 
concealed  part  of  the  spindle  C,  and  moves  in  the  thread  tapped  in  the 
hub  A ;  the  hollow  sleeve  or  thimble  D  is  attached  to  the  spindle  C 
and  covers  and  protects  the  gauge  screw.  By  turning  the  thimble,  the 
screw  is  drawn  back  and  the  caliper  opened. 

The  pitch  of  th»  screw  is  40  to  the  inch.  The  graduation  of  the  hub 
A,  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  screw,  is  40  to  the  inch,  and  is 
figured  o,  i,  2,  etc.,  every  fourth  division.  As  the  graduation  conforms 
to  the  pitch  of  the  screw,  each  division  equals  the  longitudinal  distance 
traversed  by  the  screw  in  one  complete  rotation,  and  shows  that  the 
caliper  has  been  opened  i-4oth  or  .025  of  an  inch.  The  beveled  edge  of 
the  thimble  D  is  graduated  into  25  parts,  and  figured  every  fifth  division 
o,  5,  10,  15,  20.  Each  division,  when  passing  the  line  of  graduation  on 
hub  A,  indicates  that  the  screw  has  made  i-25th  of  a  turn,  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  caliper  increased  i-25th  of  i-40th,  or  a  thousandth  of  an  inch. 

Hence,  to  read  the  caliper,  multiply  the  number  of  divisions  visible 
on  the  scale  of  the  hub  by  25,  and  add  the  number  of  divisions  on  the 
scale  of  the  thimble,  from  zero  to  the  line  coincident  with  the  line  of 
graduations  on  hub.  For  example :  As  the  caliper  is  set  in  the  cut, 
there  are  three  whole  divisions  visible  on  the  hub.  Multiply  this  number 
by  25,  and  add  the  number  of  divisions  registered  on  the  scale  of  the 
thimble,  which  is  o  in  this  case,  the  result  is  seventy-five  thousandths  of 
an  inch.  (3x25=75-<-o=75).  These  calculations  are  readily  made  mentally. 


Gauge. 


170 


Differences  between  Wire  Gauges  in  Decimal  Parts  of  an  Inch. 


c 

S 

c 

c 

5 
0 

u 

u 

°^ 

B 

^2^ 

c2 

0  c 

X 

en"*" 

hi 

^   Q  tS 

B3 

«  *  d  * 

C  0  • 

n 

0 

60 

E«y5 

.i:^ 

4!So2 

«u;z; 

V 

2M1-1 

0' 

Z 

< 

n 

^ 

^ 

Z 

0 

55 

000000 

.48 

000000 

00000 

.. 

.43 

.45'" 

..  . 

00000 

0000 

.46"" 

.454 

.393 

.4 

.4  ' 

0000 

000 

.40964 

.425 

.362 

.36 

.372 

000 

00 

.3648 

.38 

.331 

.33 

.348 

00 

0 

.32495 

.34 

.307 

.305 

.324 

0 

1 

.2893 

.3 

.383 

.385 

.3 

1 

2 

.25763 

.384 

.263 

.365 

.276 

2 

3 

.22942 

.359 

.344 

.345 

.253 

3 

4 

.20431 

.238 

.335 

.335 

.232 

4 

5 

.18194 

.23 

.307 

.305 

.312 

5 

6 

.16202 

.203 

.193 

.19 

.192 

6 

7 

.14428 

.18 

.177 

.175 

.176 

7 

8 

.12849 

.165 

.163 

.16 

.16 

8 

9 

.11443 

.148 

.148 

.145 

.144 

9 

10 

.10189 

.134 

.135 

.13 

.128 

10 

11 

.090743 

.13 

.13 

.1175 

.116 

11 

13 

.080808 

.109 

.105 

.105 

.104 

12 

13 

.071961 

.095 

.092 

.0935 

.092 

13 

14 

.064084 

.083 

.08 

.08 

.08 

.083"' 

14 

15 

.057068 

.073 

.073 

.07 

.072 

.073 

15 

16 

.05082 

.065 

.063 

.061 

.064 

.065 

16 

17 

.045357 

.018 

.054 

.0535 

.056 

.058 

17 

18 

.040303 

.049 

.047 

.045 

.048 

.049 

18 

19 

.03539 

.043 

.041 

.039 

.04 

.04 

19 

20 

.031961 

.035 

.035 

.034 

.036 

.035 

20 

21 

.028462 

.033 

.033 

.03 

.032 

.0315 

21 

22 

.035347 

.038 

.038 

.37 

.028 

.0395 

23 

23 

.032571 

.035 

.025 

.024 

.024 

.037 

23 

24 

.0301 

.033 

.033 

.0215 

.022 

.035 

24 

25 

.0179 

.02 

.02 

.019 

.02 

.033 

25 

26 

.01594 

.018 

.018 

.018 

.018 

.0305 

26 

27 

.814195 

.016 

.017 

.017 

.0164 

.01875 

27 

28 

.012641 

.014 

.016 

.016 

.0148 

.0165 

28 

29 

.011257 

.013 

.015 

.015 

.0136 

.0155 

29 

3U 

.010025 

.013 

.014 

.014 

.0134 

.01375 

80 

81 

.008928 

.01 

.0135 

.013 

.0116 

.01325 

31 

32 

.00795 

,009 

.013 

.012 

.0108 

.01125 

33 

33 

.00708 

.008 

.011 

.011 

.01 

.01025 

33 

34 

.006304 

.007 

.01 

.01 

.0093 

.0095 

34 

85 

.005614 

.005 

.0095 

.009 

.0084 

.009 

35 

36 

.005 

.004 

.009 

.008 

.0076 

.0075 

36 

37 

.004453 



.00S5 

.00735 

.0068 

.0065 

37 

38 

.003965 

.008 

.0065 

.006 

.00575 

38 

39 

.003531 

.0075 

.00575 

.0053 

.005 

39 

40 

.003144 

... 

.007 

.005 

.0048 

.0045 

40 

171 


Gauge. 


Pinion  and  Wire  Gauge.     The  jewelers'  gauge  shown  in  Fig.  141, 
will  be  found  very  useful  in  measuring  pinions,  wire  or  flat  metal.   The 


DECIMALS    EQUALING    PARTS    OF    AN     INCH. 


^  =  .0156 
A  =  .0312 
A  =  0468 
^J,  =  0625 
A  =  .0781 
A  =  .0937 
,\  =  .1093 
1  =  .1250 
A=  1406 
A  =  1562 


H  =  -1718 
^  =  .1875 
n  =  .2031 
5^5  =  .2187 
U  =  -2343 
i  =  .2600 
U  =  -3656 
^%  =  .2812 
J|  =  .2968 
A  =  .3125 


Fig.  141. 


Fig.  142. 
slot  is  graduated  to  thousandths  of  an  inch.     If  in  measuring  a  pinion 
it  passes  down  the  slot  to  number  70,  then  the  pinion  is  xi^u  °^   ^" 
inch  in  diameter. 


Gaug^. 


173 


Registering  Gauge.  The  registering  gauges  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tions are  two  of  the  best  examples  of  this  class  of  tools.  They  are 
manufactured  by  A.  J.  Logan,  Waltharn,  Mass.,  and  are  very  accurate 
and  nicely  finished.  Fig.  142  is  an  upright  and  jaw  gauge,  and  Fig. 
143  is  designated  as  a  jaw  and  depth  gauge.  They  are  both  made  to 
gauge  one  one-thousandth  of  a  centimeter  or  one-thousandth  of  an  inch. 


Fig.  143  shows  the  piece  of  work  marked  A,  being  gauged,  while  B 
represents  astationary  spindle  to  get  the  depth  of  a  hole  or  recess  or 
the  thickness  of  any  piece  of  work  which  will  be  indicated  on  the  dial. 
Fig.  144  illustrates  a  millimeter  gauge  which  is  a  favorite  with  the 
watchmaker.  It  will  register  to  one-tenth  of  a  millimeter,  and  is 
especially  useful  in  getting  the  depth,  width  and  thickness  of  main- 
spring barrels.     This  gauge,  which  was   invented  by  Moritz  Gross- 


173 


Gauge. 


mann,  was  by  him  made  with  great  care,  but  in  late  years  it  has  been 
made  by  a  German  manufacturer  of  tools,  who  is  not  noted  for 
extreme  accuracy.  This  gauge  has  a  millimeter  scale  on  each  side, 
and  when  the  vernier  slide  is  brought  to  the  extreme  end,  as  in  meas- 


Q 


^ 


y«Tin 


i. 


Fig.  144. 

uring  depths,  it  often  happens  that  the  zero  marks  cannot  be  made 
to  correspond  when  the  two  ends  are  flush.  To  correct  this,  set  the 
zero  of  the  vernier  slide  to  correspond  with  the  zero  on  the  large 
scale  and  then  be  means  of  a  copper  lap  on  the  lathe  and  some  car- 
borundum powder,  the  two  ends  may  be  ground  off  at  right  angles 
and  to  coincide  with  one  another.  This  gauge  is  hardly  light  enough 
for  measuring  pivots  and  balance  staffs  while  working  on  them  in  the 
lathe.  In  fact  there  is  no  guage  as  yet  on  the  market  which  can  be 
considered  ideal  for  this  purpose.  A  gauge  for  this  purpose  must  be 
extremely  light  and  at  the  same  time  must  be  very  accurate. 

Staff  Gauge.  The  tool  shown  in  Figs.  145  and  146,  the  invention 
of  Mr.  E.  Beeton,  is  designed  for  measuring  the  height  of  the  bal- 
ance staff  from  the  balance  seat  to  the  end  of  the  top  pivot.    Fig.  146 

is  enlarged  to  give  more  dis- 
tinctness. 

E  E'  is  a  piece  of  curved 
steel  about  -^  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  ^V  of  ^11  '"ch  wide. 
On  the  lower  side  of  £'  to 
the  end  the  arm  is  filed 
down  in  width  and  thickness 
to  correspond  to  an  ordinary  balance  arm;  C  is  a  slot  in  the  upper 
arm  E,  which  allows  A,  B,  D,  A'  to  be  moved  backward  and  for- 
ward. D  D'  is  a  round  brass  post  drilled  and  tapped,  the  part  D'  has 
a  thread  cut  on  it,  and  the  part  shown  in  the  slot  C  fits  with  easy  fric- 
tion. ^  is  a  lock-nut,  drilled  and  tapped  to  fit  the  thread  on  Z>'.  It  is 
for  the  purpose  of  clamping  D  D'  against  the  arm  E.  A  A'  is  a 
small  steel  screw  with  milled  head,  and  is  made  to  fit  the  tapped  hole 
inZ>Z»'. 

Mr.  Beeton  describes  his  method  of  using  this  tool  as  follows:  Take 
your  measurement  of  the  distance  /Ae  balance  seat  is  to  be  from  end  of 
the  top  pivot,  as  follows:  remove  the  end  stone  in  balance  cock,  and 


Fig.  U5, 


Gauge. 


174 


screw  the  cock  on  the  top  of  the  top  plate,  (i8-size  full  plate  movement) 
then  taking  the  plate  in  your  left  hand,  and  tool  (shown  in  Fig.  146)  in 
your  right,  place  H  in  position,  so  that  the  end  of  the  screw  A'  rests  on 
the  jewel  in  the  balance  cock,  and  notice  the  position  of  the  arm  B' 
which  corresponds  to  the  balance  arm,  between  the  top  plate  and  under 
side  of  balance  cock.  If  the  distance  between  the  arm  £'  and  end  of 
screw  A'  is  too  great,  the  arm  E'  will  be  too  low  and  touch  the  plate ;  if 
not  enough,  it  will  be  too  high  and  touch  the  regulator  pins.  Therefore, 
all  that  is  necessary  to  do  is  to  move  the  screw  A  A'  up  or  down  as  the 


Fig.  146. 

case  may  be,  sufficiently  to  ensure  that  the  arm  E'  will  assume  the  posi- 
tion the  arm  of  the  balance  is  to  have.  Take  an  i8-size  balance  with  over- 
sprung  hairspring,  the  arm  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  rim;  in  that  case,  when 
measuring,  the  screw  A'  is  adjusted  so  as  to  bring  the  arm  E'  close  to 
the  plate,  when  A'  is  resting  on  the  balance  jewel;  if  the  balance  is  old 
style  with  undersprung  hairspring,  the  balance  arm  is  at  top  of  rim,  in 
which  case  A'  is  adjusted  so  that  the  arm  E'  is  close  to  the  balance  cock; 
if  the  balance  arm  is  in  the  center  of  the  rim,  as  in  some  English  and 
Swiss  balances,  the  screw  A'  is  adjusted  so  that  the  arm  E'  is  midway 
between  the  plate  and  cock. 

The  reason  the  part  A^  B,D,  A' ,  is  arranged  to  move  laterally  in  slot 
C  is,  because  all  balance  shoulders  are  not  the  same  distance  from  the 
center,  and  where,  in  some  cases,  the  screw  A '  would  be  in  a  line  with  the 
center  of  the  staff  when  the  arm  E*  was  resting  on  the  balance  seat,  in 
other  cases  it  would  reach  past  the  center,  of  course,  short  of  it;  and, 
therefore,  it  is  made  adjustable  to  suit  all  cases. 


Staff  Length  Gauge.  Another  form  of  staff  gauge,  which  is  very 
simple,  and  which  any  watchmaker  can  manufacture  is  made  as  follows: 
Procure  a  small  tube  of  steel,  or  make  one  from  steel  wire,  thread  it  on 
the  inside,  and  screw  into  each  end  a  small  steel  plug  as  shown  in  Fig. 
147,  until  the  ends  of  the  plug  meet,  cut  off  the  outer  end  of  plugs  so  as 
to  leave  the  total  length  that  of  a  short  staff;  harden,  draw  to  a  blue, 
place  in  a  split  chuck,  plugs  and  all,  and  turn  a  pivot  of  good  length  on 


175 


Gauge. 


each  plug.  Flatten  the  sides  of  the  plugs  at  the  base  of  the  pivots,  so 
that  they  may  be  readily  turned  in  or  out  by  the  aid  of  tweezers.     By 

insertinej  this  tool  in  the  place  of  the  bal- 
ance, and  screwing  the  plugs  to  the  right 
position,    screwing    bridge     down,    and 
^'3-  ^*''  adjusting   until   the   right    endshake    is 

obtained,  you  can  ascertain  in  a  moment  the  exact  length  that  the  staff 
should  be  over  all,  which  can  easily  be  transferred  to  calipers  and  thence 
to  the  new  staff. 

Staff  or  Cylinder  Height  Gauge.  The  obvious  advantage  of  this 
tool,  which  is  shown  at  Fig.  148,  is  the  automatic  transfer  of  the  meas- 
urement so  that  it  may  be  readily  applied  to  the  work  in  hand.  The  tool, 
as  the  illustration  shows,  consists  of  a  brass  tube  terminating  in  a  cone- 
shaped  piece.  To  the  bottom  of  this  cone  is  attached  a  disc  through 
which  a  needle  plays.  Around  the  upper  end 
of  the  tube  is  a  collar  upon  which  is  fixed  a 
curved  steel  index  finger.  A  similar  jaw, 
which  is  free  to  move,  works  in  a  slot  in  the 
tube.  The  movable  jaw  is  tapped  and  is  pro- 
pelled by  a  screw  that  terminates  in  the  needle 
point.  This  tool  is  very  useful  in  making  the 
necessary  measurements  required  in  putting 
in  a  staff.  To  use  it  in  this  work,  set  the 
pivots  of  the  gauge  through  the  foot  hole,  and 
upon  the  end-stone  project  the  needle  such  a 
distance  as  you  wish  the  shoulder  to  be  formed 
above  the  point  of  the  pivot.  Next  set  the 
gauge  in  the  foot  hole  as  before,  and  elevate 
the  disc  to  a  height  that  shall  be  right  for  the 
roller,  which  is  done  by  having  the  lever  in  Fig.  148. 

place,  the  little  disc  showing  exactly  where  the  roller  should  come. 
Finish  the  staff  up  to  that  point;  then  take  the  next  measurement  from 
the  end-stone  to  where  the  shoulder  should  be,  for  the  balance  to  rest 
upon.  This  point  being  marked,  the  staff  can  be  reversed  and  measure- 
ments commenced  from  the  upper  end-stone,  by  which  to  finish  the 
upper  end  of  the  staff.  Distances  between  the  shoulders  for  pinions  and 
arbors  can  be  obtained  with  the  same  facility,  a  little  practice  being 
the  only  requisite. 

Twist  Drill  and  Steel  Wire  Gauge.  This  gauge,  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  149  will  be  found  very  useful  in  determining  the  diameter  of 
twist  drills  and  steel  wire,  and  is  very  accurately  and  nicely  made. 

Vernier  Caliper.  Fig.  150  is  an  illustration  of  the  Vernier  Caliper, 
a   light,   convenient   and   valuable    instrument    for    obtaining   correct 


Gauge. 


176 


measurements.  The  side  represented  in  the  illustration  is  graduated 
upon  the  bar  to  inches  and  fiftieths  of  an  inch,  and  by  the  aid  of  a 
Vernier  is  read  to  the  thousandths  of  an  incli,  (see  description  below). 
The  opposite  side  is  graduated  to  inches  and  sixty-fourths  of  an  inch. 
The  outside  of  the  jaws  are  of  suitable  form  for  taking  inside  measure- 
ments, and  when  the  jaws  are  closed,  measure  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousandths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 


10 


Jo  6  6  6  6'6  6  6  o  o  o  o 

5^13       14       15       15       17       18       19      20      21      22      23      E4      25  h 

o'^eO  Q'OOOOOOOOOOO^i 


H^2G      27      28      29     30     31      32     33    34    35     36     37    38    39    40    Hit 

I^O    O    O   O  O  O    O^^o  o   o    o  o   o  o   o  o" 

*-S;;42    43    44    45    46    47    48   49    50    51   52    53    54  55  56    57  58  59  60 
aO       O      O       O      O      O      O      O       O       O      9       O       O      o      a       o       9      Q       a  ^ 


n 


Fig.  149. 

These  instruments  can  be  furnished  with  millimeters  (in  the  place  of 
sixty-fourths  of  an  inch),  and  provided  with  a  Vernier  to  read  to  one- 
fiftieth  of  a  millimeter. 

On  the  bar  of  the  instrument  is  a  line  of  inches  numbered  i,  2,  3,  each 
inch  being  divided  into  tenths,  and  each  tenth  into  five  parts,  making 
fifty  divisions  to  one  inch.  Upon  the  sliding  jaw  is  a-  line  of  divisions, 
(called  a  Vernier,  from  the  inventor's  name),  of  twenty  parts,  figured  o, 
5,  10,  15,  20.     These  twenty  divisions  on   the  Vernier  correspond  in 


iiiliiiiliiiiliiiihiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiiiliiimiiiliiiiliiiilii 

DailiTig,  Brown 8c ShArpe.Pl"07idcncB .R.I, 


Fig.  130. 


^LT 


extreme  length  with  nineteen  parts,  or  nineteen-fiftieths  on  the  bar,  con- 
sequently each  division  on  the  Vernier  is  smaller  than  each  division  on 
the  bar,  by  one-thousandth  of  an  inch.  If  the  sliding  jaw  of  the  caliper 
is  pushed  up  to  the  other,  so  that  the  line  o  on  the  Vernier  corresponds 
with  o  on  the  bar,  then  the  next  two  lines  to  the  left  will  differ  from  each 
other  one-thousandth  of  an  inch,  and  so  the  difference  will  continue  to 
increase  one-thousandth  of  an  inch  for  each  division  till  they  again  cor- 
respond on  the  twentieth  line  on  the  Vernier.     To  read  the  distance  the 


177  Gerbert. 

caliper  may  be  open,  commence  by  noticing  how  many  inches,  tenths 
and  parts  of  tenths  the  zero  point  on  the  Vernier  has  been  moved  from 
the  zero  point  on  the  bar.  Then  count  upon  the  Vernier  the  number  of 
divisions  until  one  is  found  which  coincides  with  one  on  the  bar,  which 
will  be  the  number  of  thousandths  to  be  added  to  the  distance  read  off 
on  the  bar.  The  best  way  of  expressing  the  value  of  the  divisions  on 
the  bar  is  to  call  the  tenths  one  hundred  thousandths  (.100)  and  the  fifths 
of  tenths,  or  fiftieths,  twenty  thousandths  (.020).  Referring  to  the 
accompanying  cut  it  will  be  seen  that  the  jaws  are  open  one-tenth  of  an 
inch,  which  is  equal  to  one  hundred  thousandths  (.100).  Suppose  now, 
the  sliding  jaw  was  moved  to  the  left,  so  that  the  first  line  on  the  Ver- 
nier would  coincide  with  the  next  line  on  the  bar,  this  would  then  make 
twenty  thousandths  (.020)  more  to  be  added  to  one  hundred  thousandths 
(.100),  making  the  jaws  then  open  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousandths 
(.120)  of  an  inch.  If  but  half  the  last  described  movement  was  made,  the 
tenth  line  on  the  Vernier  would  coincide  with  a  line  on  the  bar,  and  would 
then  read,  one  hundred  and  ten  thousandths  (.110)  of  an  inch. 

GERBERT.  By  some  authorities  accredited  with  the  invention  of 
the  escapement  and  the  application  of  the  weight  as  a  motive  power  for 
clocks.  He  was  born  in  Belliac,  in  Auvergne,  in  920  A.  D.  He  was 
educated  in  a  monastery,  and  served  successively  as  Monk,  Bishop, 
Archbishop  and  finally  as  Pope,  being  better  known  under  the  name  of 
Sylvester  H.     He  died  May  12,  1003. 

GILDING.     (See  Electro-Plating) 

GIMBALS.  A  contrivance  for  securing  free  motion  and  suspension 
of  a  ship's  chronometer,  compass,  etc.,  so  that  it  may  not  be  affected 
by  the  motion  of  the  ship.  It  is  virtually  a  universal  joint.  It  was 
invented  by  Cardan  and  first  applied  to  timepieces  by  Huyghens. 

GODDARD,   LUTHER.      One  of  the  earliest   manufacturers  of 
American    watches.       In    1809    he 
opened  a  small  shop  in  Shrewsbury, 
Mass.,   and   commenced    to    manu- 
facture watches  of  the  verge  pattern, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  151,  in  somewhat 
larger     quantities    than    had    been 
attempted    before.      He    could   not 
compete  in  price,  however,  with  the 
cheap  foreign  watches  which  were 
then  being  imported  in  large  quan- 
tities,  and    accordingly    he    retired  i'S-  m- 
from  the  business   in  1817,  having  manufactured  about   500   watches. 
This  was  the  greatest  number  of  watches  ever  made  by  any  one  manu- 
facturer in  America  up  to  this  time. 


Going  Barrel.  178 

GOING  BARREL.  A  barrel  having  teeth  around  its  circumference 
for  driving  the  train.  All  American  watches  are  of  the  going  barrel 
type. 

GOING  FUSEE.  A  fusee  having  the  maintaining  power  attach- 
ment. All  modern  fusees  have  a  maintaining  power  which  drives  the 
train  while  the  fusee  is  being  wound.  Examples  of  old  fusees  are,  how- 
ever, occasionally  met  with  which  have  no  maintaining  power  and  the 
watch  is  stopped  during  the  operation  of  winding. 

GOLD  ALLOYS.    (See  Alloys.) 

To  Distinguish  Genuine  from  Spurious  Gold.  Genuine  gold  dis- 
solves in  chlorine  water  and  the  solution  has  only  a  slightly  yellowish 
color.  Hence  chlorine  is  a  safe  agent  to  distinguish  genuine  from  spu- 
rious gold.  To  test  the  genuineness  of  gilt  articles,  rub  a  tiny  drop  of 
mercury  on  one  corner  of  the  surface  to  be  examined;  it  will  produce  a 
white,  silvery  spot  if  the  gold  is  pure,  or  if  there  is  gold  in  the  alloy.  If 
this  silvery  spot  does  not  appear  there  is  no  gold  in  the  surface  exposed. 
To  prove  the  correctness  of  this  result  a  drop  of  the  solution  of  nitrate 
of  mercury  can  be  dropped  on  the  surface,  when  a  white  spot  will  appear 
if  the  gold  is  counterfeit,  while  the  surface  will  remain  unaltered  if  the 
gold  is  genuine.  After  the  operation,  heating  the  article  slightly  will 
volatize  the  mercury  and  the  spots  will  disappear.  Pure  gold  can  be 
distinguished  from  its  alloys  by  a  drop  of  chloride  of  gold  or  of  nitrate 
of  silver.  If  the  gold  is  pure  there  will  be  no  slain,  but  if  mixed  with 
other  metals  the  chloride  of  gold  will  leave  a  brownish  stain  upon  it  and 
the  nitrate  of  silver  a  gray  stain.  The  simplest  means  of  distinguishing 
genuine  gold  from  a  gold-like  alloy  consists  in  running  the  article  to  be 
tested  against  an  ordinary  flint  until  a  lustrous  metallic  coloring 
remains  upon  the  latter.  Now  hold  a  strongly  sulphurated  burning 
match  against  the  coloring ;  if  it  disappears  from  the  flint  the  article  is 
not  gold. 

GOLD  SPRING.  A  very  thin  spring  made  of  gold,  attached  to  the 
detent  of  a  chronometer  escapement.  See  Chrono 
meter  Escapement. 

GRAHAM,  GEORGE.  Born  in  Cumberland, 
England,  in  1673  and  died  in  1751.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminister  Abbey.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
mercurial  pendulum  (1715),  the  dead  beat  escapement 
for  clocks,  and  is  credited  with  being  the  inventor  of 
Oeorge  Oraham.       the   cylinder  escapement. 


179  Graham  Escapement 

GRAHAM  ESCAPEMENT.  An  escapement  invented  by  George 
Graham,  in  which  the  locking  faces  of  the  pallets  are  arcs  of  a  circle 
concentric  with  the  axis  of  the  anchor,  from  which  it  gets  the  name 
dead-beat  escapement,  that  is,  the  escape  wheel  tooth  lies  dead  upon 
the  locking  face  of  the  anchor  and  has  no  recoil  or  circular  motion, 
except  at  the  time  it  delivers  an  impulse.  This  form  requires  more 
care  in  making  than  the  recoil.  When  applied  to  a  seconds  pendu- 
lum the  escape  wheel  is  made  with  thirty  teeth,  if  a  second  hand  is 
mounted.  The  anchor  is  made  to  cover  from  eight  to  ten  teeth  of  the 
escape  wheel.  As  the  number  of  teeth  covered  by  the  anchor  is 
decreased,  correspondingly  greater  care  is  necessary  in  the  making. 
Saunier  says,  "if  this  amount  is  exceeded  the  thickening  of  the  oil 
has  an  appreciable  influence,  and,  with  a  less  amount,  very  accurate 
workmanship  is  necessary. 

Laying  Out  the  Escapement.  Having  decided  upon  the  size  of 
escape  wheel  and  the  number  of  teeth  the  anchor  is  to  cover,  draw  a 
circle  representing  the  escape  wheel  and  divide  it  into  thirty  equal 
spaces,  or  whatever  number  of  teeth  the  wheel  is  to  have.  If  the 
wheel  is  to  have  thirty  teeth,  the  space  between  two  of  them  will  be 
twelve  degrees.  The  front  faces  of  the  teeth  are  to  be  drawn  at  an 
angle  of  ten  degrees  to  a  radial  line.  This  inclination  of  the  teeth 
is  marked  off  by  laying  the  base  of  the  protractor  so  the  center  of  it 
will  coincide  with  the  point  of  a  tooth  and  mark  off  ten  degrees  from 
the  radial  line  in  the  proper  direction  to  form  the  faces  of  the  teeth. 
Having  located  this  ten  degree  point,  join  it  with  the  point  of  the 
tooth  by  a  straight  line,  continuing  it  past  the  center  of  the  escape 
wheel,  and  from  this  center  draw  a  circle  to  which  the  line  forming 
the  front  face  of  the  tooth  is  a  tangent.  The  front  faces  of  the  other 
teeth  may  be  drawn  at  the  same  angle  as  the  first  by  simply  drawing 
a  straight  line  through  the  point  of  the  tooth  and  tang.ential  to  the 
circle  drawn  last. 

Draw  a  line  from  the  center  of  the  escape  wheel  through  the  point 
of  a  tooth,  and  to  the  right  of  this  draw  another  line  passing  midway 
between  the  tenth  and  the  eleventh  teeth.  From  the  points  of  these 
teeth  erect  perpendiculars,  and  where  these  cross  will  be  the  center 
of  motion  of  the  anchor.  From  the  anchor  center  draw  a  straight 
line  forming  an  angle  of  from  one  to  two  degrees'  to  the  right  of  the 
lines  drawn  from  the  points  of  the  teeth.  These  lines  will  locate  the 
lifting  angle,  the  smaller  amount  being  used  in  regulators  and  astro- 
nomical clocks.  From  the  anchor  center  draw  an  arc  passing  through 
the  points  of  the  teeth  which  locates  the  opening  of  the  pallets. 

Now  draw  another  smaller  circle  concentric  with  this  one  and  at  a 
distance  equal  to  one-half  the  space  between  two  teeth,  less  the  drop, 
will  give  the  thickness  of  the  pallets.     From  the  point  of  the  tooth 


Graham  Escapement.  IbO 


Fig.  153. 


181  Graver. 

to  where  this  last  arc  crosses  the  line  of  the  lifting  angle  will  be  the 
impulse  face  of  the  pallet.  All  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  fill  in 
the  arm  of  the  anchor.  The  form  shown  in  Fig,  153  is  very  convenient, 
as  slight  inaccuracies  in  making  may  be  corrected  by  means  of  the 
two  adjusting  screws. 

Making  the  Anchor.  This  form  of  anchor  presents  no  difficulties 
in  making  it,  but,  of  course,  more  care  is  necessary  than  in  an  ordi- 
nary escapement.  The  points  requiring  the  most  care  are  the  lock- 
ing faces,  which  as  before  stated,  must  be  circles  concentric  to  the 
the  center  of  the  anchor  motion.  A  piece  of  good  steel  plate  thor- 
oughly annealed,  is  to  be  used  to  make  the  anchor  from.  This  steel 
plate  must  be  smoothed,  and  the  angles  of  the  anchor  carefully  out- 
lined by  using  a  sharp  pointed  marker.  The  surplus  metal  may  be 
removed  by  drilling  a  number  of  holes  or  it  may  be  sawed  out  by 
using  a  jewelers'  saw.  The  steel  plate  should  be  thick  enough  that 
the  impulse  faces  will  at  all  times  overlap  the  escape  wheel  teeth. 
For  an  astronomical  clock  or  regulator  it  will  be  found  of  advantage 
to  make  the  anchor  as  shown  in  Fig.  153,  which  will  be  found  quite 
solid  if  the  screws  are  as  closely  fitted  as  they  should  be.  In  harden- 
ing it  will  be  quite  sufficient  if  the  pallets  are  hardened,  as  there  is 
no  wear  except  at  these  points,  and  there  is  of  course  no  distortion  to 
be  corrected.  The  locking  surfaces  may  be  ground  concentric  by 
mounting  the  anchor  upon  an  arbor  which  must  be  perfectly  upright, 
which  will  fit  the  arbor  hole  with  sideshake,  but  yet  so  it  can  be  moved 
around.  This  arbor  may  be  mounted  in  place  of  the  T-rest  of  an 
American  lathe,  or  what  is  better  an  attachment  may  be  put  on  the 
the  slide  rest  so  that  the  anchor  may  be  brought  up  to  a  good  sized 
copper  lap,  to  which  carborundum  is  applied  and  by  rotating  the 
anchor  upon  this  arbor,  the  locking  surfaces  may  be  ground  off  con- 
centric. By  using  a  zinc  or  tin  lap  with  diamantine,  the  same  method 
may  be  employed  for  polishing. 

GRAVER.  A  steel  cutting  tool  used  for  engraving,  turning,  etc. 
The  "Guaranteed"  gravers,  shown  in  Fig.  154,  are  unique  from  the 
fact  that  they  cut  at  both  ends;  the  handle  (which  is  patented)  is  so 
adapted  that  it  will  accommodate  the  reverse  ends  of  innumerable 
sizes  and  shapes  of  gravers.  The  various  angles  of  points  of  the 
gravers  are  very  excellent  and  cover  the  entire  field  as  used  both  for 
turning  and  engraving. 

Use  of  the  Graver.*  Beginners  should  first  practice  on  hard  wood, 
then  brass,  iron,  steel  and  hardened  and  tempered  steel,  progressing 

•The  directions  apply  to  the  use  of  the  graver  as  a  turning  tool  only.  For  direc- 
tions for  engraving  on  gold,  silver,  copper,  etc.,  the  reader  is  referred  to  two  excel- 
lent works  entitle.],  'General  Letter  Engraving"  and  "Modern  Letter  Engraving," 
Geo.  K.  Hazlilt  &  Co.,  Publishers,  Chicago. 


Graver. 


182 


ing  from  one  material  to  the  other  as  his  ability  warrants.  He  should 
turn  for  a  long  time  with  the  point  of  a  square  or  lozenge-shaped  graver, 
the  end  of  which  is  ground  off  on  a  slope;  this  is  the  only  possible 
method  of  learning  to  turn  true^  and  it  enables  the  workman  to  acquire 

great  delicacy  of  touch.  Owing 
to  carelessness,  or  to  the  fact  that 
when  first  beginning  they  were 
set  to  work  on  metal  that  was 
too  hard  or  rough,  most  beginners 
turn  with  gravers  that  are  ground 
to  very  blunt  points;  as  the  graver 
bites  less,  they  are  obliged  to 
apply  a  proportionately  increased 
pressure,  and  only  succeed  in 
tearing  the  metal  away,  subject- 
ing it  to  a  kind  of  rolling  action 
and  rendering  the  hand  heavy. 
If  a  pupil  will  not  practice  turn- 
ing with  the  graver  point  so  as 
to  preserve  it  intact  for  some 
time,  dependent  on  the  nature  of 
the  metal,  he  will  never  be  able 
to  turn  perfectly  true.  Irregular 
and  sudden  depressing  of  the 
graver  point,  or  engaging  it  too 
deeply,  causes  its  frequent  rup- 
ture.f  When  sufficient  exper- 
ience has  been  gained  in  tin-ning 
with  the  graver  point  and  a  trial 
is  made  with  the  cutting  edge,  do 
not  attempt  to  take  off  mucli  at  a 
time  by  pressing  heavily,  but  take 
the  metal  sideways,  so  as  to  re- 
move a  continuous  thread,  using 
all  the  points  of  the  edge  in 
succession.  The  metal  will  thus 
be  removed  as  a  thin  ribbon  or 
shaving.  When  the  hand  has  had 
someex  perience,  it  will  be  found 
easy  to  remove  long  strips. 
Fig.  v,4.  Hardened  steel    that  y.as  been 

drawn  down  to  a  blue  temper  requires  certain  precautions.  If  the 
graver  is  found  not  to  cut  cleanly,  it  must  at  once  be  sharpened,  and  no 

tSee  illustrations  and  directions  for  liolding  ^raver,  under  lieading  Making  BalanCi. 
Staff. 


183  Gravimeter. 

< 

attempt  should  be  made  to  remove  more  metal  by  increasing  the  pressure 
of  the  hand,  because  the  steel  will  burnish  and  become  hard  under  a 
point  or  edge  that  is  blunt,  and  the  portions  thus  burnished  are  some- 
times so  hard  as  to  resist  the  best  gravers.  The  only  way  of  attacking 
them  is  to  begin  at  one  side  with  a  fine  graver  point,  which  must  be 
sharpened  frequently ;  at  times  it  becomes  necessary  to  temper  the  metal 
afresh  before  it  will  yield.  It  is  well  to  moisten  the  point  of  the  graver 
with  turpentine. 

Apprentices,  and  even  watchmakers  themselves,  are  frequently  care-i 
less  as  to  the  proper  sharpening  of  their  gravers,  and  think  they  can 
hasten  their  work  by  application  of  considerable  pressure;  in  this  way 
they  sometimes  produce  bright  spots  that  require  several  hours'  work 
before  they  can  be  removed.  A  majority  of  the  Swiss  workmen  turn 
with  the  right  or  left  hand  indifferently.  This  is  a  v6ry  useful  accom- 
plishment, easily  acquired  when  young. 

GRAVIMETER.  An  instrument  for  ascertaining  the  specific 
gravity  of  liquid  or  solid  bodies. 

GRAVITY.  The  tendency  which  a  body  has  towards  the  center  of 
the  earth. 

Specific  Gravity.  The  ratio  of  the  weight  of  a  body  to  the  weight  of 
an  equal  volume  ot  some  other  body  taken  as  the  standard  or  unit. 
This  standard  is  usually  water  for  solids  and  liquids,  and  air  for  gases. 
Thus  19,  the  specific  gravity  of  gold,  signifies  that  gold  is  19  times 
heavier  than  water. 

GRAVITY  CLOCK.  This  is  a  large  glass  clock  dial,  with  a  stud 
fixed  in  the  center  on  which  revolve  two  hands,  as  shown  in  Fig.  155, 
without  any  visible  power  to  operate  them.  Hung  in  a  jeweler's  win- 
dow so  that  it  can  be  inspected  from  both  sides  without  anyone  discover- 
ing the  source  of  power,  it  forms  a  great  attraction  to  the  curious  and  so 
becomes  a  durable  and  valuable  advertisement.  Take  a  plate  of  glass 
two  feet  square  and  lay  out  and  gild  a  clock  dial  upon  it,  avoiding  all 
ornament,  in  order  to  give  the  observer  as  little  to  see  and  as  much  to 
guess  as  is  possible ;  cement,  drill  or  otherwise  fasten  a  stud  in  the  cen- 
ter  of  the  dial,  projecting  from  the,  rear  side  so  as  to  give  facility  for 
adjustment  and  certain  exhibitions,  which  will  be  mentioned  later.  This 
stud  must  be  perfectly  hard  and  very  finely  polished  in  order  to  reduce  the 
friction,  which  is  considerable.  The  hands  should  be  made  of  cedar,  per- 
fectly dry  pine,  or  some  other  extremely  light  \vood,left  about  a  half  inch 
thick, soithat  they  can  be  nicely  counterbalanced  with  lead,  and  will  appear  to 
the  observer  to  be  merely  wooden  hands.  The  circular  discs  at  the  inner 
extremities  of  the  hands  are  hollowed  out  to  receive  two  watch  move- 
ments, and  the  boxes  are  closed  with  a  cover  fitting  closely  enough  so 


Gravity  Escapement.  181 

that  it  cannot  be  perceived  by  ordinary  inspection.  Each  side  of  the 
hands  is  perfectly  jeweled  with  large  English  fusee  jewels,  so  as  to 
revolve  on  the  stud  with  as  little  friction  as  possible.  The  two  watch 
movements  must  be  regulated  to  run  as  closely  together  as  possible  and 
to  keep  exact  time.  Two  half  circles  of  lead  are  attached  to  the  move- 
ments  in  such  a  way  that  their  rotation  in  th«  hollow  discs  will  change 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  hands  and  so  cause  them  to  rotate  on  the 
stud  of  the  dial.  The  lead 
half-circle  for  the  minute  hand 
is  attached  to  the  minute  arbor 
of  its  movement  and  that  of 
the  hour  hand  to  the  hour 
pipe  on  its  movement.  If 
the  wooden  hands  are  nicely 
gilded  it  will  add  to  the  decep- 
tion, as  the  disc  for  the  move- 
ment may  then  be  made  of 
tin  and  be  much  smaller  and 
more  symmetrical.  When 
finished,  the  clock  is  hung  in 
the  window,  suspended  by 
chains  from  holes  bored  in  the 
corners.  We  will  suppose  that 
you   have   the  clock  finished  ^^'  ^^' 

and  running  nicely,  and  that  the  time  shown  is  2:20;  take  hold  of  the 
hands,  bring  them  together  and  send  them  twirling  around  the  dial ; 
when  they  stop  they  will  show  the  correct  time,  say  2:21.  Suppose  the 
hands  show  9:45  or  2:45,  bring  both  hands  to  12  or  6  and  thev  will 
immediately  assume  the  correct  position.  Take  off  the  minute  hand 
and  lay  it  on  the  bench  for  five  or  six  minutes;  put  it  on  again,  give  it 
a  twirl,  and  it  will  stop  at  the  correct  time.  Various  other  tricks  will 
suggest  themselves  for  the  astonishment  and  mystification  of  the  jew- 
eler's patrons,  and  considerable  benefit  can  be  derived  from  the  curiositv 
of  an  excited  town. 

GRAVITY  ESCAPEMENT.  An  escapement  is  which  the  train 
raises  a  lever  a  constant  distance,  and  the  weight  of  the  lever  when 
returning  to  position  gives  impulse  to  the  pendulum.  It  is  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  turret  clocks, 

GREAT  WHEEL.  In  the  fuzee  it  is  the  toothed  wheel  which 
transmits  the  power  from  the  fuzee  to  the  center  pinion.  In  the 
going  barrel  the  toothed  portion  corresponds  to  the  great  wheel.  In 
clocks  without  a  barrel  it  is  the  wheel  mounted  upon  the  same  arbor 
as  the  mainspring. 

GRIGNION,  THOMAS.  A  well-known  watch  and  clockmaker,  of 
London,  who  died  in  1784.  His  son  Thomas,  also  a  clockmaker,  claimed 


1«5  Guard  Pin. 

for  him  the  honor  of  bringing  to  perfection  the  horizontal  principle  in 
watches  and  the  dead  beat  in  clocks. 

GROSSMANN,  MORITZ.  A  celebrated  horologist,  author  and 
linguist.  Though  born  and  raised  in  Saxony,  he  was  very  conversant 
with  the  French,  Italian  and  English  languages,  and  contributed  to 
many  technical  journals  throughout  the  world.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Biitish  Horological  Institute,  the  Galileo  Galilei, 
Milan,  Italy,  and  the  Polytechnic  Society  of  Leipzig. 
It  was  while  in  the  hall  of  the  latter  society,  and  just 
after  delivering  a  lecture  on  horology,  that  he  was 
stricken  with  apoplexy,  which  resulted  in  his  death 
Jan.  23,  1885.  He  received  his  training  as  a  watch- 
maker under  the  best  masters  of  Saxony,  Switzerland, 
France  and  England.  He  located  in  Glashutte, 
^  Saxony,   in   1854,   and   began   the    manufacture    of 

Moritz  Grossman,  fl^g  watches,  tools  and  metric  gauges,  and  later 
on  large  sized  models  of  the  various  escapements.  His  first  essay, 
"The  Detached  Lever  Escapement,''  was  written  in  1864  and  was  awarded 
first  prize  by  the  British  Horological  Institute.  In  1869  he  took  the  first 
prize  offered  by  the  Chambre  de  Commerce,  Geneva,  on  the  subject  of 
"The  Construction  of  a  Simple  and  Mechanically  Perfect  Watch."  In 
1878  he  published  a  translation  of  Claudius  Saunier's  "Modern  Horo- 
logy." 

GUARD  PIN.     See  Sa/eiy  Pin. 

GYRATE.  To  revolve  around  a  central  point.  See  Center  of  Gyra 
t  on. 

HAIR  SPRING.  The  spring  that  determines  the  time  of  vibrations 
of  the  balance.  The  term  hair  spring  is  distinctively  American,  as  all 
other  nations  use  the  more  fitting  appellation  of  Balance  Spring.  The 
hair  spring  was  invented  by  Dr.  Robert  Hooke  in  1658,  and  first  applied 
to  a  double  balance  watch  for  Charles  II ,  on  which  was  inscribed  "Robt. 
Hooke,  Inven:  1658.  T.  Tompion,  fecit,  1675.''  The  spring  was  nearly 
straight.  In  1660  Dr.  Hooke  altered  the  form  by  making  it  spiral.  The 
different  forms  of  hair  springs  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  157.  The  most 
common  form  is  the  volute  or  spiral  spring,  shown  at  A.  B  is  a  helical 
spring  used  in  chronometers.  C  is  a  Breguet  spring,  which  is  a  flat 
spiral  with  its  outer  end  bent  up  above  the  plane  of  the  body  of  the 
spring,  and  carried  in  a  long  curve  towards  the  center,  near  which  it  is 
fixed.  The  advantage  of  the  Breguet  spring  is  that  it  distends  when  in 
action,  on  each  side  of  the  center,  thus  relieving  the  balance  pivots  of  the 
side  pressure  which   the  ordinary  flat  spring  tends  to  give,  and  it  also 


Hair  Spring  Stud  Index. 


186 


offers  opportunities  of  obtaining  isochronism  by  varying  the  character  of 
the  curve.  Glasgow  says  that  a  hair  spring,  of  whatever  form,  to  be 
isochronous  must  satisfy  the  following  conditions :  its  center  of  gravity 
must  always  be  on  the  axis  of  the  balance,  and  it  must  expand  and  con- 
tract in  the  vibrations  concentrically  with  that  axis.  Immish  contends 
that  mere  length  of  spring  has  nothing  to  do  with  isochronism.  Mr. 
Glasgow  contends  that  the  whole' question  of  isochronism  resolves  itself 
into  the  adoption  of  a  spring  of  the  correct  length,  and  recommends  for 
a  lever  watch  fourteen  turns  if  a  flat,  and  twenty  turns  if  a  Breguet 
spring  is  used,  if  a  cylinder  watch  use  from  eight  to  twelve  turns  He 
argues  that  if  a  spring  is  too  short,  the  short  vibrations  will  be  fast  and 


ABC 

Fig.  157. 
the  long  vibrations  slow,  and  that  all  bending  and  manipulation  of  the 
spring  with  a  view  to  obtaining  isochronism  are  really  only  attempts  to 
alter  the  effective  length  of  the  spring.  Mr.  Britten  contends  that  the 
position  of  the  points  of  attachment  of  the  inner  and  outer  turns  of  a  hair 
spring  in  relation  to  each  other  has  an  effect  on  the  long  and  short 
vibrations  quite  apart  from  its  length.  For  instance,  a  very  different 
performance  may  be  obtained  with  two  springs  of  precisely  the  same 
length  and  character  in  other  respects,  but  pinned  in  so  that  one  has 
exactly  complete  turns,  and  the  other  a  little  under  or  a  little  over  com- 
plete turns.  He  argues  that  a  short  spring  as  a  rule  requires  to  be  pinned 
in  short  or  complete  turns,  and  a  long  one  beyond  the  complete  turns. 

In  duplex  and  other  watches  with  fric- 
tional  escapements,  small  arcs  of  vibra- 
tion and  short  springs,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  spring  requires  to  be  pinned  in 
nearly  half  a  turn  short  of  complete 
turns. 

HAIR  SPRING  STUD  INDEX. 

Wathier's  Self-adjusting  Hair  Spring 
Stud  Index,  shown  in  Fig.  158,  is  a  very 
useful  device,  and  by  its  use  the  watch- 
maker can  save  much  time  and  can 
obtain  better  results  than  by  following 
the  regular  methods  of  determining 
Place  the  lower  part  of  balance  staff  in 
round  cleat  A.      Turn  balance  until  ruby  pin  comes  over  oblong  hole  at 


Fig.  158. 
when  a  movement  is  in  beat. 


187 


Hair  Spring  Stud  Index. 


B.  Now  let  the  balance  down  until  roller  table  rests  on  steel  center 
plate.  The  balance  will  then  be  ready  for  the  spring.  Place  the  hair 
spring  on  the  staff,  with  the  stud  in  exact  line  with  the  line  on  the  index 
corresponding  in  name  with  the  movement  you  wish  to  put  in  beat. 
Now  fasten  the  hair  spring  collet  on  the  staff,  and  you  will  find  move- 
ment in  beat.  At  a  glance,  the  watchmaker  may  be  lead  to  believe  that 
this  tool  is  only  applicable  to  the  fourteen  movements  shown  on  the 
index,  but  in  reality  it  serves  for  almost  every  movement  that  comes 
into  the  hands  of  the  repairer.  For  example,  the  line  marked  E. 
Howard  &  Co.,  not  only  serves  for  that  make  of  watches,  but  also  for 
Waltham  14  and  16  sizes.     Directions  accompany  each  tool. 

Fig.  159  shows  a  hair  spring  stud  index  recently  placed  on  the  market 
by  A.   \V.  Johanson.      The  engraving  shows  the  full   size  of  the  tool, 

which  consists  of  a  steel  plate 
mounted  on  feet,  and  pierced  with 
a  number  of  holes  for  the  recep- 
tion of  screws,  when  taking  down 
a  watch.  In  the  center  of  the 
index  is  a  hole  for  the  staff,  and 
an  oblong  slot  for  the  reception 
of  the  roller  jewel.  To  get  any 
American  movement  in  beat  pro- 
ceed as  follows :  In  front  of  No. 
■^*^"  ^^'  100  is  a  small  spring,  push  same 

towards  No.  10,  then  place  the  balance  on  top  of  the  stand,  with  staff" 
in  center  and  roller  jewel  in  the  oblong  hole,  let  the  spring  back  gently, 
the  balance  will  then  take  its  own  position.  Set  degree  hand  in  front 
of  the  desired  degree,  as  per  directions  on  index  table,  place  hair  spring 
stud  in  front  of  degree  hand,  and  push  on  the  collet. 


INDEX    TABLE    FOR    HAIR  SPRING    STUDS. 


Size. 

Columbus 18 

Columbus 6 

Elgria 18 

Elgin 16 

Elg-in 16 

Elgin. ....10 

Elgin...6and8 

Elgin 0 

Illinois 18 

Illinois 18 

Illinois 18 

Illinois 16 

Illinois 6 

Illinois 4 

Hampden 18 

Hampden 18 


Degree. 
Open  Face  Breguet..23 
Open  Face  Breguet.. 
Open  Face  Breguet.. 46 
Open  Face  Breguet.. 52 

Flat  Hair  Spring 52 

Flat  Hair  Spring 50 

Flat  Hair  Spring 50 

Flat  Hair  Spring 

Open  Face  Breguet.. 33 

Hunting.... 84 

Open  Face  Flat 89 

Hunting .52 

Dutber  Hunting 80 

Open  Face. 75 


Size. 

Hampden 16 

Hampden 6 

Howard 18 

Howard 18 

Howard 16 

Howard 6 

Rockford 18 

Rockford 6 

Waltham 18 

Waltham....  18 
Waltham. ...18 
Waltham.  14-16 
Waltham  ..4-  6 

Waltham 1 

Seth  Thomas  18 
Scth  Thomas  18 


Degree. 

Hunting .....50 

Old  Model 5 

New  Model 23 


.27 


Key  Flat  Hair  Spr'g.48 
O.  F.  Hair  Spring... 61 

Breguet 50 

.'. 42 

50 

42 

Open  Face 50 

Hunting .......53 


Half  Plate. 


188 


HALF  PLATE.  A  half-plate  watch,  as  its  name  implies,  is  one 
in  which  the  top-plate  covers  half  of  the  pillar  or  lower  plate,  and 
which  supports  the  upper  ends  of  the  barrel  arbor,  center  and  third 
pinions. 

HALL  MARK.  The  stamp  placed  upon  articles  of  gold  and  silver 
after  being  assayed  by  government  officials.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment does  not  employ  hall  marks,  but  articles  can  be  assayed  by  the 
proper  officers,  and  a  certificate  of  their  standard  given  upon  payment  of 
a  small  fee.  The  hall  marking  of  watch-cases  is  not  compulsory  in 
Switzerland,  ujiless  they  contain  some  stamp  indicating  their  quality, 
and  the  English  and  other  hall  marks  are  recognized.  In  Great  Britain 
with  few  exceptions,  the  hall  marking  of  jewelry  is  optional  with  the 
manufacturer,  but  all  gold  or  silver  cases  made  in  Great  Britain  or  Ire- 
land must  be  marked.      The  hall  marks  for  Switzerland  are  shown  in 


I8k  or  .750. 


14k  or  .583.  Sterling  or  .935. 


Fig.  160. 


Fig.  160.  Hall  marks  are  not  alone  useful  for  determining  the  quality 
of  goods,  but  are  also  a  great  aid  in  determining  the  age  of  watches,  etc. 
The  hall  mark  of  Great  Britain  consists  of  several  impressions  in  separ- 
ate frames  or  shields ;  the  quality  mark,  the  office  mark  (which  designates 
where  it  was  stamped),  year  mark,  and  if  duty  is  chargeable,  the  head  of 
the  reigning  sovereign.  The  standard  or  quality  mark  for  London  and 
Birmingham  is,  for  gold,  a  crown,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i6i,  and  tS  or  some 
other  figure  to  designate   thecal  at.      The  standard  mark  for  22  carat 

gold  prior  to  1S45  was  a  lion  passant, 
which  is  now  used  as  the  quality 
mark  for  sterling  silver.  The  quality 
mark  for  15k.  gold  is  15  or  .625,  for 
FHg.  161.  12k.  is  12  or  .5  and  for  9k.  is  9  or  .375. 

The  decimals  indicate  the  proportions  of  pure  gold  of  24k.  in  the  alloys. 
The  office  or  location  mark  for  London  is  a  Leopard's  head  in  a  shield, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  161.  The  leopard's  head  was  crowned  prior  to  1823. 
Watch  cases  have  been  exempt  from  duty  in  Great  Britain  since  1798, 
but  all  foreign  cases  are  stamped,  the  die  for  silver  being  an  octagon 
with  the  word  foreign  and  for  gold  a  cross.  These  dies  also  contain  a 
mark  to  show  where  marked,  that  of  London  having  a  sun  or  full  moon. 


1S9 


Hall  Marks. 


<aa<@ 


Fig.  162. 


Hand. 


190 


In  Great  Britain,  from  1697  to  1823,  the  standard  mark  for  silver  was 
a  Lion's  head,  and  the  office  mark  a  figure  of  Britannia,  but  from  the 
latter  date  to  the  present  time,  a  lion  passant  and  a  leopard's  liead  have 
been  used.  The  date  marks  shown  in  Fig.  162,  will  prove  very  valuable 
in  fixing  the  dates  of  watches  made  in  Great  Britain  as  in  most  cases, 
the  case  was  made  at  a  date  coinciding  prettj  closely  with  the  manufact- 
ure of  the  watch. 

HAND.  An  index  or  pointer  used  in  indicating  minutes  and  hours 
on  a  watch,  clock  or  similar  dial. 

HAND  REMOVER.  The  style  of  watch  hand  remover  shown  in 
Fig.  163  is  a  very  nice  pattern  and   can  also  be  used  as  a  roller  remover 

and  for  several  other  purposes. 
The  action  of  the  tool  can  be 
readily  understood  by  exam- 
ining the  illustration.  The 
threaded  wire  in  the  center  extends  through  the  entire  tool  and  is  raised 
or  lowered  by  the  milled  nut  at  the  end  of  the  handle.  This  tool  can 
also  be  used  for  holding  hands  while  broaching  the  hole,  or  the  tool 
shown  in  Fig.  164,  and  known  as  the  nine-hole  sliding  tongs,  and  many 


Fig.  164. 
other  patterns,  for  sale  by  material  dealers,  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purpose.  Fig.  165  shows  a  second  hand  holder,  with  the  hand  in  posi- 
tion ready  to  broach.  This  tool  can  also  be  used  as  a  screw  head  tool. 
In  order  to  broach  out  a  new  hand,  if  the  boss  of  the  old  hand  has  been 
preserved,  place  a  small 
slip  of  cork  upon  the 
end  of  the  broach  and 
insert  it  in  the  old  hand  Fig.  165. 

as  far  as  it  will  go,  and  the  new  hand  may  then  be  broached  until  the  cork 
is  reached  before  trying  it  for  a  fit.  The  holes  in  the  hands  may  be  closed 
by  forcing  them  into  a  conical  hole  in  a  steel  plate,  first  turning  off  the 
metal  around  the  edge  of  the  hole,  so  that  it  is  left  rather  thin,  or  it  may 
be  contracted  after  reducing  the  edge,  by  means  of  the  stake. 

•  HARRIS,  RICHARD.  A  clockmaker  of  London.  Comparatively 
little  is  known  .of  this  clockmaker,  except  that  a  friend  of  his,  one 
Thomas  Grignion,  authorized  his  son  to  make  known  that  Richard  Har- 
ris was  the  person  who  first  applied  a  pendulum  to  a  clock,  eight  years 
before  Vincent  Galileo  laid  claim  to  having  made  a  clock  regulated  by  a 


liJl  Harrison. 

pendulum.    There  is  no  evidence,  however,  to  prove  that  Harris  was 
the  inventor  of  the  pendulum. 

HARRISON,  JOHN.  This  celebrated  horologist  was  born  at 
Faulby,  Yorkshire,  England,  in  1693.  In  1700  the  family  moved  to 
Barrow,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  he  carried  on  the  business  of  repairing 
watches  and  clocks.  In  1735  he  went  to  London 
with  a  timekeeper  of  his  own  invention  and  construc- 
tion, and  through  the  interest  taken  in  him  by 
Graham  and  Hallej,  he  was  allowed,  iri  1736,  to  take 
it  on  board  a  king's  ship  to  Lisbon.  In  1761  he  made 
another  chronometer  which  was  thought  sufficiently 
correct  to  enable  him  to  claim  the  government 
reward  offered  in  1714.  The  government  offered 
£20,000  to  anyone  who  would  make  a  chronometer 
John  Harrison.  that  would  determine  the  longitude  to  within  half  a 
degree.  He  received  the  reward  in  1767.  He  is  credited  with  being  the 
inventor  of  the  going  fusee  and  the  gridiron  pendulum.  He  died  in 
1776. 

HAUTEFEUILLE,  JOHN.  An  ingenious  mechanic  born  at 
Orleans  in  1764.  He  was  the  first  person  to  apply  a  small  steel  spring 
to  regulate  the  vibrations  of  the  balance.  Huyghens  applied  for  a  patent 
on  the  invention,  but  was  refused,  on  the  ground  that  Hautefeuille  had 
laid  his  invention  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1694,  some  years 
before.  In  1722  he  invented  what  was  known  as  the  rack  lever  escape- 
ment. 

HENLEIN,  PETER.  A  clockmaker  of  Nuremberg,  to  whom 
some  authorities  give  the  credit  of  the  invention  of  the  pocket  watch. 
It  is  claimed  that  he  made  pocket  watches  or  clocks,  soon  after  the  year 
1500.     He  was  born  in  1480,  and  died  in'1542. 

HOOKE,  ROBERT.  He  was  born  at  Freshwater,  Isle  of  Wight, 
on  the  i8th  of  July,  1635.  In  1658  he  invented  the  hairspring  and 
applied  it  to  a  watch  for  Bishop  Wilklns  in  1661.  About  the  same  time 
he  invented  the  circular  or  conical  pendulum,  which  was  in  1663  shown 
in  the  Royal  Society.  In  1664  the  Royal  Society  gave  him  an  annuity 
of  £30  for  his  work  as  director  of  experiments.  He  invented  anchor 
pallets  in  1666.  In  1655  he  invented  a  wheel  cutting  engine  and  round- 
ing-up  tool  for  watch  and  clockmakers.  He  was  also  the  inventor  of  the 
hydrometer  and  leveling  instrument,  and  the  author  of  the  axiom  on 
the  compression  and  extension  of  springs  and  other  elastic  bodies  "as  the 
tension  is  so  is  the  force."  In  1677  he  was  elected  Honorary  Secretary  of 
the  Royal  Society.  He  died  March  3,  1702,  and  was  buried  in  St. 
Helen's  church,  London. 


Horological  Books.  193 

HORIZONTAL  ESCAPEMENT.     {See  Cylinder  Escapement.) 

HOROLOGICAL  BOOKS.  The  following  list  of  books  published 
on  horologj-  and  kindred  subjects  from  1639  to  1850  inclusive,  may  prove 
of  value  to  those  who  have  a  horological  library  or  who  contemplate 
such  a  step.  Works  on  horology  have  become  so  numerous  since  1850 
that  the  space  at  command  will  not  admit  of  their  mention. 

L'usage  du  Cadran  ou  de  I'Horloge  Physique  universel.  Galileo, 
Paris,  1639. 

Nuova  Scienza  di  Horologi  a  Polvere.  Angelo  Maria  P.  Radi,  4to, 
Rome,  1665. 

Instructions  concerning  the  use  of  Pendulum  Watches  for  finding  the- 
Longitude  at  Sea.    Christian  Huyghens,  Phil.  Trans.,  London,  1669. 

Horologium  Oscillatorium,  sive  de  motu  pendulorum  ad  Horologia 
aptato.     F.  Muguet,  Paris,  1673. 

Horologium  Oscillatorium,  sive  de  motu  Pendulorum.  Christian 
Huyghens,  Paris,  1673. 

Factum  touchant  les  Pendules  des  Cloches.  John  Hautefeuille,  4to, 
Paris,  1675. 

Horological  Dialogues  in   three  parts,  shewing  the  nature,  use  and 

right  managing  of  Clocks  and  Watches.  John  Smith,  London,    1675. 

This  was,  beyond  doubt,  the  first   work  on   horology  printed   in  the 
English  language. 

On  Portable  Watches.  Godfrey  William  de  Leibnitz,  Phil.  Trans., 
London,  1675. 

A  new  invention  of  a  Clock  descending  on  an  Inclined  Plane.  M.  de 
Gennes,  Phil.  Trans.,  London,  1678. 

Concerning  a  movement  that  measures  Time  after  a  peculiar  manner; 
being  a  Clock  descendant  on  an  Inclined  Plane.  Rev.  Maurice  Wheeler, 
M.  A.,   Phil.  Trans.,  London,  1684. 

Horological  Disquisitions  concerning  the  Nature  of  Time,  etc.  John 
Smith,  i2mo,  London,  1694.     A  second  edition,  London,  1708. 

The  Artificial  Clockmaker.  Wm.  Derham,  D.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  8vo, 
London,  1696.  A  second  edition,  1700.  Fourth  edition,  with  large 
emendations,   i2mo,  London,  1734.     New  edition,  i2mo,  London,  1759. 

The  antiquity  of  Clockwork.     Wm.  Durham,  London,  1700. 

Philosophical  Experiments  and  observations  of  Dr.  Robert  Hooke, 
F.  R.  S.,  Wm.  Derham,  London,  1700. 

Balance  Magnetique.     John  Hautefeuille,  4to,  Paris,  1702. 


193  Horological  Books. 

Reasons  of  the  English  Clock  and  Watchmakers  against  the  Bill  to 
Confirm  the  pretended  new  Invention  of  using  precious  and  common 
Stones  about  Watches,  Clocks  and  other  Engines.     London,  1704. 

Regie  Artificielle  du  Temps,  Henry  Sully.  Paris,  1717.  A  second 
edition  1717,  with  additions  by  Julien  LeRoy. 

Description  abregee  d'une  Horloge  d'une  nouvelle  construction,  pour 
la  juste  mesure  du  Temps  sur  mer.     Henry  Sully,  Paris,  1726. 

A  contrivance  to  avoid  the  Irregularities  in  a  Clock's  Motion,  occa- 
sioned by  the  action  of  Heat  and  Cold  on  the  Pendulum  Rod.  Phil. 
Trans.,  London,  1726. 

Letter  asserting  his  right  to  the  Curious  and  Useful  Invention  of 
m.iking  Clocks  to  keep  time  with  the  Sun's  Apparent  Motion.  Joseph 
Williamson,  Phil.  Trans.,  London,  1726. 

Observations  on  the  Going  of  a  Clock  in  Jamaica.  Colin  Campbell, 
Pnil.  Trans.,  London,  1734. 

Traite  General  des  Horloges,  Jacques  Alexandre  (R.  P.  Dom),  Paris, 
1734- 

Experiments  on  the  Vibrations  of  Pendulums.  Wm.  Durham,  D.  D., 
F.  R.  S.,  Phil.  Trans,  London,  1736. 

Traite  d'Horlogerie.     M.  Thiout,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1741. 

Of  the  True  Inventor  of  the  Contrivances  in  the  Pendulum  of  a  Clock 
to  Prevent  Irregularities  of  its  motion  from  Heat  or  Cold.  James  Short, 
F.R.  S.,  Phil.  Trans   London,  1751. 

Description  of  two  methods  by  which  the  Irregularities  in  the  motion 
of  a  clock,  arising  from  the  influences  of  heat  or  cold  on  the  Pendulum, 
may  be  prevented.    John  Ellicott,  London,  1753. 

Account  of  the  Influence  of  two  Pendulum  Clocks  on  each  other. 
John  Ellicott,  410,  London.      No  date.     1754.' 

Traite  d'Horlogerie.    J.  E.  Lepaute,  Paris,  1755. 

L'Art  des  Conduire  et  de  Regler  les  Pendules  et  les  Montres.  F. 
Berthoud,  Paris,  1760. 

Concerning  the  going  of  Mr.  Ellicott's  clock  at  St.  Helena.  Jas.  Short 
F.  R.  S.,  Phil.  Trans.,  London,  1762. 

Observations  on  a  clock  of  Mr.  John  Shelton,  made  at  St  Helena. 
Nevil  Maskelyne,  Phil.  Trans.,  London,  1762. 

Mechanicus  and  Flaveus ;  or  the  Watch  Spiritualized.  8vo,  London, 
1763- 


Horological  Books.  194 

Les  Quatres  Parties  du  Jour.  Charles  Francis  de  Saint-Lambert 
Paris,  1764. 

Etudes  Chronometriques.     Pierre  Le  Roy,  Paris,  1764. 

Account  of  the  Proceedings  in  order  to  the  Discovery  of  the  Longi- 
tude at  Sea,  subsequent  to  those  published  in  the  year  1763.  John  Har. 
rison,  8vo,  London,  1765. 

Supplement  4  I'Essai  sur  V  Horlogerie.     F.  Berthoud,  Paris,  1765. 

Thoughts  on  the  Means  of  Improving  Watches,  and  particularly  those 
for  use  at  sea.    Thos.  Mudge,  Jr.,  London,  1765. 

Elements  of  Clock  and  Watch  Work  adapted  to  practice.  Alexander 
Cumming,  4to,  London,   1766, 

Remarks  on  a  Pamphlet  lately  published  by  Dr.  Maskelyne.  John 
Harrison,  8vo,  London,  1767. 

The  Principles  of  Mr.  Harrison's  Timekeeper ;  with  plates  of  the  same 
on  India  Paper,  Published  by  order  of  the  Commissioners  of  Longitude. 
4to,  London,  1767. 

The  Mensuration  of  Time.    John  Harrison,  London,  1767. 

An  account  of  the  going  of  Mr.  Harrison's  Watch,  at  the  Royal 
Observatory,  from  6th  May,  1766,  to  March  4th,  1667,  with  the  original 
observations  and  calculations  of  the  same.  Nevil  Maskelyne,  D.  D.,  F. 
R.  S,  4to,  London,  1768. 

Memoirs  for  the  Clock-makers  of  Paris,  ent  Etrennes  Chronometriques. 
Treatise  on  the  Labours  of  Harrison  and  Le  Roy  for  the  discovery  of 
the  Longitude  at  Sea,  and  of  the  proofs  made  of  their  works.  English 
translation  from  the  French  of  Peter  Roy,  4to,  London,  1768. 

Select  Mechanical  Exercises.showing  how  to  construct  different  Clocks, 
Orreries  and  Sun  dials  on  plain  and  easy  principles.  James  Ferguson, 
F.  R.  S.,  8vo,  London,  1773. 

Traite  des  Horloges  Marine.    F.  Berthoud,  4to,  Paris,  1673. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Mechanical  part  of  Watch  and  Clock  Work, 
Illustrated  with  18  copper  plates.    Thomas  Hatton,  8vo,  London,  1774. 

Les  Longitudes  par  la  Mesure  du  Temps.  F.  Berthoud,  4to,  Paris, 
^775- 

Eclaircissements  sur  I'Invention  des  Nouvelles  Machines  proposees 
pour  la  determination  des  Longitudes  en  Mer,  par  la  mesure  du  temps. 
F.  Berthoud,  410,  Paris,  1775. 

Clock  work  and  Music.    John  Harrison,  8vo,  London,  1775. 


193  Horological  Books. 

A  letter  from  Mr.  Christian  Meyer,  Astronomer  to  the  Elector  Pala- 
tine, to  Mr.  N.  N.,  on  the  going  of  a  New  Pendulum  Clock,  made  by  Mr. 
John  Arnold,  and  set  up  in  the  Elector's  Observatory,  at  Manheim. 
From  the  German,  4to,  London,  17S1. 

La  Mesure  du  Temps  Appliques  a  la  Navigation,  F.  Berthoud,  4to, 
Paris,  1783. 

Essai  sur  I'Horlogerie.  F.  Berthoud,  2  vols.,  410,  1763.  Reprinted 
17S6. 

De  la  Mesure  du  Temps.     F.  Berthoud,  4to,  Paris,  1787. 

Narrative  of  Facts  Relating  to  some  Timekeepers  Constructed  by 
Thos.  Mudge.    Thos.  Mudge,  Jun.,  London,  1792. 

Answer  to  a  pamphlet,  entitled,  A  Narrative  of  Facts,  lately  published 
by  T.  Mudge,  Jun ,  relating  to  some  timekeepers  constructed  by  his 
father,  Mr.  Thos.  Mudge.     Nevil  Maskelyne,  8vo,  London,  1792. 

Investigations,  founded  on  the  theory  of  Motion,  for  determinating 
the  Times  of  Vibrations  of  Watch  Ballances.  George  Atwood,  Phil. 
Trans.,  London,  1794. 

Histoire  de  la  Mesure  du  Temps  par  les  Horologes.  F.  Berthoud, 
2  vols.,  4to,  Paris,  1S02. 

Pocket  Watches.     Parr,  London,  1804. 

Essai  sur  I'Histoire  abregee  de  1'  Horlogerie.     M.  Perron,  Paris,  1820, 

Account  of  Experiments  to  determine  the  Figure  of  the  Earth  by 
means  of  the  Pendulum  vibrating  seconds  in  different  Latitudes;  as  well 
as  on  other  subjects  of  Philosophical  Inquiry.  Captain  Sabine,  4to,  Lon- 
don, 1825. 

An  Appeal.     Thos.  Earnshaw,  8vo,  London,  1836. 

Historical  Treatise   on   Horology. Henderson,  8vo,  London, 

1836. 

Results  of  Experiments  on  the  Vibration  of  Pendulums  with  different 
Suspending  Springs.  J.  W.  Frodsham,  4to,  London,  1839. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Management  of  Public  Clocks,  etc.,  Francis  Abbot, 
X,ondon.     No  date.     About  1840.     Three  editions. 

Eiffe's  Improvements  in  Chronometers  and  Molyneux's  Specification 
of  Patent  for  Improvement  in  Chronometers.     410,  London,  1842. 

On  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Chronometers.  E  J.  Dent, 
8vo,  London,  1842. 

Trait6  d'Horlogerie.     Louis  Moinet,  Paris,  1843. 
Railroad  Clocks.     B  L  VuUiamy,  8vo,  London,  1845. 


Hour  Glass.  19G 

Treatise  on  Clock  and  Watch  Making,  Theoretical  and  Practical. 
Thomas  Raid.  8vo,  Edinburgh,  1826.  Reprint,  Philadelphia,  1S32. 
Reprint,  London,  1847. 

Time  and  Time  Keepers.     Adam  Thompson,  i2mo.,  London,  J  847. 

Clock  and  Watchmaking.     E.  B.  Denison,   M.  A.,    izmo,   London, 


HOUR  GLASS.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  hours,  consist- 
ing of  a  glass  vessel  having  two  cone-shaped  compartments,  from  the 
uppermost  of  which  a  quantity  of  sand,  water,  or  mercury  occupies  an 
hour  in  running  through  a  small  aperture  into  the  lower. 

HOUR  WHEEL.  The  wheel  which  turns  on  the  cannon  pinion 
and  carries  the  hour  hand. 

HOURIET,  F.  A  noted  Swiss  watchmaker  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. He  worked  for  nine  years  in  Paris  with  sueh  men  as  F.  Berthoud, 
Romilly  and  Le  Roy.  He  afterwards  returned  to  Neufchatel,  and  much 
of  the  rapid  progress  made  by  the  watchmakers  of  fhat  canton  wSs 
credited  to  his  efforts. 

HOWARD,  EDWARD.  The  veteran  watch  and  clockmaker  of 
Boston.  He  was  born  in  Hingham,  Mass.,  Oct.  6,  1813.  He  served  an 
apprenticeship  of  seven  years  as  a  clockmaker.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
nine  he  embarked  in  the  business  of  clockmaking  on  his  own  account, 
his  partner  being  D.  P.  Davis,  and  the  firm  being  known  as  Howard  & 
Davis,  The  firm  manufactured  a  very  superior 
^^*^^  line  of  clocks  and  regulators,  and  their  goods  soon 

«^       -iX  gained  a   world-wide   reputation.      In    1849  Mr. 

W^^/^7  Howard,  together  with  A.  L.  Dennison,  Samuel 

.-    %  '1^  4  Curtis,   a   Boston    capitalist,    and    D.    P.    Davis 

/^  ' ^j^^^^^fL.  organized   a    company   for   the   manufacture    of 

lij^^^Bfc^^^^. '     watches.    This  company  was  separate  and  distinct 
^^llf^'^g, -^v^J^^^Bi    from  that  of  Howard  &  Davis,  and  was  known  as 
Y  jL    .^^^  JH^     the   American  Horologe  Company.     This  com- 
^^SBSSBB^P^         pany  was   the   first  in   the   world   to    undertake 
Edward  Emcard.        ^he  manufacture  of  watches  on  the  interchange- 
able system.      The  first  watches   were   made  to 
run  eight  days  and  had  two  barrels.     They  proved  a  failure,  however, 
and  were  soon  abandoned.     The  factory  was  situated  directly  opposite 
to  the  Howard  &  Davis  shop.     The  name  of  the  company  was  changed 
subsequently  to   the  Warren  Manufacturing  Compan\',  and  later  to  the 
Boston   Watch   Company.      In    1854  the   location   of   the   factory  was 
changed  to  Walthani.      In  1857  the  company  made  an  assignment,  and 


197 


Huyghens. 


the  property,  consisting  of  real  estate,  the  factory,  and  numerous  other 
buildings,  machinery,  steam  engine,  etc  ,  was  offered  at  public  auction 
and  was  bid  in  for  $56,500  by  Royal  E.  Robbins,  for  himself  and  the 
firm  of  Tracy  &  Baker,  case  makers  of  Philadelphia,  who  were  creditors 
of  the  defunct  company.  After  the  failure  of  the  Boston  Watch  Com- 
pany, Mr.  Howard  returned  to  Roxbury  and  continued  with  his  clock 
business  in  connection  with  Mr.  Davis.  In  1858  he  again  began  manu- 
facturing watches  in  the  old  factory  of  the  Boston  Company,  in  Roxbury, 
and  placed  on  the  market   the  first  quick  train  movements  ever  made 


Factory  of  Boston  Watch  Co.,  1857. 

in  this  country.  Even  in  those  early  days  of  American  watchmaking, 
the  Howard  watches  were  noted  for  their  superior  qualities  as  time  keep, 
ers,  a  reputation  which  followed  them  up  to  the  present  time.  In  1861 
the  Howard  Clock  and  Watch  Company  was  organized  with  a  capital  of 
$120,000.  In  1863  the  name  was  changed  to  the  Howard  Watch  and 
Clock  Company  and  in  1881  it  was  again  changed  to  the  E.  Howard 
Watch  and  Clock  Company.  In  1S82  Mr.  Howard  severed  his  connec- 
tion with  the  watch  company  and  retired  from  all  active  business.  Mr. 
Howard  invented  many  labor  saving  devices  in  the  horological  line, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  swing  rest. 


HUYGHENS,  CHRISTIAN.  A  Dutch  mathematician  and  author 
of  a  work  on  pendulums.  He  was  born  at  the  Hague  on  14th  of  April,  1629. 
In  1665,  Louis  XIV.  invited  him  to  Paris  for  the  purpose  of  founding  a 
Royal  Academy  of  Science.  He  resided  in  Paris  from  1666  to  1681, 
when  he  returned  to  Holland.  In  the  year  1656,  he  first  conceived  the 
idea  of  applying  a  pendulum  to  a  clock,  and  at  once  set  to  work  at  his 
task.  On  the  i6th  of  June,  1657,  he  presented  to  the  States  of  Holland 
his  first  pendulum  clock.  In  1658  Adrian  Ulaag,  of  the  Hague,  pub- 
lished for  him  in  Dutch,  a  short  description  of  this  new  clock.     In  1673, 


Huyghens. 


198 


finding  that  Vincent  Galileo  and  others  claimed  the  merit  of  the  adaptation 
he  authorized  F.  Muguet,  of  Paris  to  publish  for  him  a  valuable  work 
entitled  "Horologium  oscillatorium,  sive  de  motu  pendulorum  ad 
Horologia  aptato,"  wherein  he  gave  the  construction  of  his  clocks,  with 
drawings,  and  the  theory  (useless  in  practice),  of  the  cycloidal  checks, 
as  a  means  of  rectifying  the  variations  in  the  length  of  the  arcs  of  vibra- 
tion of  the  pendulum.  Galileo  claimed  to  have  adapted  a  pendulum  to 
a  clock  as  early  as  1649,  but  there  appears  to  be  no  authority  to  be  relied 
on,  to  prove  his  having  done  so.     Dr.  Hooke  was  another  of  the  claimants 


Fig.  169. 


Fig.  no. 


Fig.  171. 


for  the  honor  of  the  first  application  of  the  pendulum  to  a  clock,  but 
Nelthropp,  after  reviewing  the  question  says:  But  it  may  without  much 
fear  of  contradiction  be  here  asserted  that  to  the  careful  searcher  after 
truth,  the  following  conclusions  only  can  be  arrived  at.  First — That 
credit  ought  to  be  given  to  Huyghens  for  being  the  first  to  apply  the 
discovery  of  Galileo  to  a  clock,  and.  That  Dr.  Hooke  can  justly  lay 
claim  to  having  brought  the  whole  matter  to  perfection  by  the  invention 
of  his  anchor  escapement,  which  enabled  him  to  use  a  long  pendulum 
with  a  heavy  bob,  thereby  rendering  the  arcs  of  vibration  shorter,  and 
necessitating  much  less  motive  power. 

Huyghens'  clock  is  shown  in  Fig.  169     The  upper  part  of  the  pendu- 
lum is  a  double  cord  hanging  between  two  cyloidal  checks,  to  give  a 


190  Hypocycloid. 

cycloidal  path  to  the  bob.  Fig.  170  gives  abetter  idea  of  the  device, 
>vhich  was  no  doubt  of  advantage  vvith  the  long  arcs  required  by  the 
Verge  Escapement.  Another  feature  of  Huvghens'  clock  is  the  main- 
taining power.  The  driving  weight,  P,  Fig.  171,  is  supported  by  an  end- 
tess  cord  passing  over  the  pulley  D,  attached  to  the  great  wheel,  and 
also  over  the  pulley  H,  which  is  provided  with  ratchet  teeth  and 
pivoted  to  the  inside  of  the  clock  case.  The  cord  m  is  pulled  down  to 
wind  the  clock,  and  the  ratchet  wheel  H  then  runs  under  its  click.  So 
that  while  winding,  as  in  going,  one-half  of  P  minus  one-half  of  /  is 
driving  the  clock.  The  pulleys  D  and  H  are  spiked  to  prevent  slipping 
of  the  cord. 

When  this  ingenious  maintaining  power  is  applied  to  a  clock  with  a 
striking  train,  the  pulley  with  the  ratchet  is  attached  to  the  great  wheel 
of  the  striking  part,  one  weight  thus  serving  to  drive  both  trains,  fy. 
chain  is  preferable  to  a  cord,  owing  to  the  dust  which  accumulates  in  the 
clock  through  the  wearing  of  the  latter. 

HYPOCYCLOID.  A  curve  generated  by  a  point  in  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle  when  it  is  rolled  within  another  circle.  The  proper 
shape  for  the  teeth  of  the  wheels  that  are  driven  by  others  having  epicy- 
cloidal  addenda.  If  the  tracing  circle  is  half  the  diameter  of  the  one 
within  which  it  rolls,  the  hypocycloid  will  be  a  radial  line. 

ICE  BOX.  A  box  or  chamber  used  when  adjusting  chronometers  and 
fine  watches  for  temperature.  It  is  usually  built  in  the  form  of  a  double 
box,  the  ice  being  placed  between  the  two  boxes  and  both  boxes  hermeti- 
cally sealed,  so  that  the  movement  may  not  come  in  contact  with  damp 
air.  The  outer  box  is  provided  with  a  drain  pipe  for  carrying  off  the 
water  and  plate  glass  is  inserted  in  the  front  of  each  box,  so  that  the  move- 
ment may  be  viewed  without  removing  it  from  the  box.  The  cover  of 
the  inner  box  should  not  be  removed  for  at  least  two  hours  after  it  has 
been  removed  from  the  ice  chamber  in  order  to  protect  the  steel  work 
from  rust  caused  by  the  condensation  of  the  air  in  the  cold  metal. 

IDLER.  I,  An  idle  wheel.  2,  A  wheel  for  transmitting  motion  from 
one  wheel  10  another,  either  by  contact  or  by  means  of  belts,  as  the  wheel 
on  a  countershaft,  or  overhead  fixture.  3,  An  intermediate  wheel  used 
for  reversing  motion.  Figs.  172  And  173  illustrate  two  forms  of  idlers, 
sometimes  called  overhead  fixtures.  The  supports  for  the  idlers  are 
adjustable  in  all  directions.  They  are  especially  valuable  for  use  on 
slide  rest  tools,  such  as  polisher,  milling  attachments,  etc.,  to  give  a  ver- 
tical direction  to  the  belts.  The  rods  are  about  20  inches  long  and  the 
pattern  shown  in  Fig  172  has  a  ball  and  socket  joint  where  it  is 
screwed  to  the  bench.    The  radial  arras  which  hold  the  pulleys  may 


Impulse  Pin. 


200 


be  adjusted  to  any  position  on  the  rod  by  means  of  a  thumb  screw,  and 
the  pulleys  have  a  lateral  play  of  %  of  an  inch  tp  aid  in  maintaining 
greater  freedom  of  the  belt  during  the  travel 
of  the  tool  on  the  slide  rest.  The  idlers  shown 
were  designed  by  A.  W.  Johanson,  and  have 
hard  rubber  pulleys  i^  inches  in  diameter, 
having  brass  bushings.  The  style  shown  in 
^'&-  1 73  is  intended  to  be  clamped  on  the 
swiveled  bearing  of  the  counter  shafts  which 
are  supported  on  standards. 

IMPULSE  PIN.  The  ruby  pin  of  the 
lever  escapement  which,  entering  the  notch 
of  the  lever,  unlocks  the  escape  wheel  and 
then  receives  impulse  from  the  lever  and 
passes  out  at  the  opposite  side. 

INDEPENDENT  SECONDS.  A  move- 
ment having  a  seconds  hand  that  is  driven  by 
a  separate  train. 

INDEX,  The  small  curved  plate  with 
divisions  on  its  face,  over  which  the  regulator 
arm  passes.  The  circular  plate  at  the  back  of 
a  lathe  head,  having  holes  drilled  around  its 
margin  for  the  reception  of  a  pin,  for  dividing 
a  wheel  or  other  object  placed  in  a  chuck. 
Fig.  172.      Fig.  173.  Sometimes  called  a  dividing  plate. 

INERTIA.  That  property  of  matter  by  which  it  tends  when  in  rest 
to  remain  so,  or  when  set  in  motion  to  continue  so. 

INGOLD  PRAISE.  A  pinion  shaped  cutter  used  for  correcting 
inaccuracies  in  the  shape  of  wheel  teeth,  invented  by  Ingold,  a  Swiss 
watchmaker.  This  consists  really  of  a  hardened  pinion  with  square, 
sharp  points.  The  fraise  is  gradually  brought  into  depth,  in  a  specially 
arranged  depth  tool,  with  a  wheel  whose  teeth  are  incorrect,  and  rotated 
the  while  by  means  of  a  ferrule  and  bow.  The  fraises  do  not  supercede 
the  rounding  up  tool,  but  may  often  be  used  after  it  with  advantage,  for 
if  a  wheel  contain  any  thick  teeth  they  would  not  be  corrected  in  the 
rounding  up  tool,  which  also  of  necessity  leaves  the  teeth  slightly  hollow. 
The  fraises  cut  the  teeth  in  the  direction  they  move  on  the  pinion  in 
working,  and,  therefore,  leave  a  surface  which  works  with  the  least  fric- 
tion. 

A  fraise  for  any  particular  wheel  should  be  chosen  so  that,  when  placed 
upon  the  wheel,  the  fraise  does  not  bottom,  but  just  touches  the  sides 
and  almost  closes  over  the  middle  one  of  the  teeth  engaged,  at  the  same 


dOl  Involute. 

time  just  making  contact  with  the  teeth  right  and  left.  If  the  fraise 
chosen  is  too  large,  it  will  cut  a  jagged  and  uneven  tooth ;  and,  if  too 
small,  will  leave  a  ridge  or  shoulder  on  the  tooth ;  in  this,  as  in  everything 
else,  practice  makes  perfect.  As  a  guide  at  first,  it  will  be  prudent  to 
use  the  sector  to  ascertain  the  most  suitable  fraise  for  use;  thus — place 
the  wheel  to  be  operated  upon  in  the  sector,  and  choose  a  fraise  of  such 
size  as  will  correspond,  not  to  the  size  indicated  by  the  number  of  its 
teeth,  but  to  two  teeih  less. 

INVOLUTE.  The  curve  traced  by  the  end  of  a  string  wound  upon 
a  roller  or  unwound  from  it.  This  was  a  favorite  shape  for  wheel 
teeth  at  one  time,  but  was  abandoned  because  it  was  found  that  the 
pressure  on  the  pivot  was  increased  by  it,  and  it  is  now  entirely  super- 
ceded by  the  epicycloidal. 

ISOCHRONAL.  Uniform  in  time;  moving  in  equal  time.  When 
the  long  and  short  arcs  of  a  balance  are  caused  to  be  performed  in  the 
same  time  by  means  of  a  hairspring,  that  spring  is  said  to  be  an 
isochronal  one,  or  isochronous.  When  the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum  are 
all  of  the  same  duration,  no  matter  through  what  extent  of  arc  the  pen- 
dulum moves,  the  vibrations  are  isochronal. 

JACOT  PIVOT  LATHE.  A  tool  used  but  little  in  this  country, 
the  American  lathe  and  its  attachments  having  superceded  it.  It  is  used 
for  reburnishing  and  dressing  up  pivots. 

JANVIER,  ANTIDE.  He  was  celebrated  for  his  skill  in  represent- 
ing planetary  movements  by  the  aid  of  mechanism.  He  was  a  profound 
mathematician.  He  was  born  at  Saint-Claude-du-Jura,  in  1751,  and  died 
in  1835. 

JAPANESE  CLOCKS.  The  Japanese  use  a  clock  which  divides 
the  day  into  twelve  hours,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  follow  the  varia- 
tions of  the  solar  day,  so  that  the  period  from  sunrise  to  sunset  shall  be 
divided  into  six  equal  portions,  which  vary  in  length  according  to  the 
season.  These  clocks  are  of  three  kinds.  The  first  has  a  dial,  on  which 
the  hours  are  printed,  which  turns  with  a  varying  speed,  according  to 
the  season,  while  the  time  is  denoted  by  means  of  a  fixed  index.  The 
second  has  a  dial  rotating  with  a  constant  rate,  but  the  points  indicating 
the  hours  approach  automatically  nearer  to  the  center  when  the  season 
calls  for  shorter  hours.  The  third  has  no  dial,  but  instead  uses  a  vertical 
scale  which  is  traversed  by  an  index  attached  to  the  weight;  see  Figs.  174 
and  175.  The  works  consist  of  the  drum,  B,  around  which  the  cord  winds 
from  two  other  wheels,  and  a  verge  balance  with  spiral  spring.     Three 


Japanese  Clocks. 


202 


thousand  eight  hundred  vibrations  are  produced  for  each  revolution  of 
the  drum.  The  weight  is  composed  of  the  striking  works  and  carries  the 
index  A,  which  points  to  the  hours  as  the  weight  descends.  The  strik- 
ing works  consist  of  a  barrel  b.  Fig.  176,  with  spring  and  a  train  of  four 


Fig,  116. 


Fig.  177. 


Fig.  174. 


Fig.  li 


wheels,  ending  with  a  lone  pinion.  The  first  wheel,  a,  carries  pins  which 
control  the  hammer  to  strike  the  gong  T;  the  second  wlieel,  c,  carries  an 
elbow  which  stops  the  train  and  raises  the  bascule  L  with  one  end,  while 


203 


Jewel. 


the  other  end  impels  the  wheel  R  at  each  revolution,  The  weight 
strikes  against  the  pins  //,  b.  Fig.  175,  as  it  descends.  These  pins  act 
successively  on  the  arm  L,  Fig.  176,  turning  the  bascule  G  and  liberat- 
ing the  hammer,  which  strikes  the  gong.  The  wheel  R,  Fig.  177,  has 
three  cuttings  that  allow  but  one  stroke  of  the  hammer,  and  three  others 
that  allow  two  strokes,  the  remainder  being  divided  so  as  to  give  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8  and  9  strokes  respectively. 

JEROME,  CHAUNCEY.  Mr.  Jerome  was  one  of  the  earliest 
clockmakers  of  America  and  at  one  time  was  one  of  the  largest  manu- 
facturers. He  was  born  at  Canaan,  Conn.,  June  10,  1793.  In  1816  he 
went  to  work  for  Eli  Terry,  then  the  largest 
manufacturer  of  clocks  in  America.  In  1817  he 
started  in  the  business  of  clockmaking  for  himself 
in  a  small  way.  He  put  up  the  first  circular  saw 
ever  used  in  Bristol,  in  182J.  In  1824  he  organ- 
ized a  company  for  the  manufacture  of  clocks. 
In  1838  he  put  the  first  brass  clock  upon  the 
market.  In  1842  he  introduced  these  brass  clocks 
in  England,  being  the  first  American  manufac> 
turer  of  clocks  who  succeeded  in  establishing  a 
In  1850  he  organized  the  Jerome  Manufacturing 
Company,  which  carried  on  the  large  clock  business  of  its  time.  Owing 
to  poor  management  the  company  failed  in  1855,  and  Jerome,  although 
a  verv  rich  man  at  one  time,  was  hopelessly  ruined  by  this  failure. 
This  company  was  succeeded  by  the  New  Haven  Clock  Company. 

JEWEL.  In  watch  work,  a  stone  having  a  hole  pierced  in  it  for  the 
reception  of  a  pivot.  To  Nicholas  Facio,  a  native  of  Genoa,  is  attributed 
the  invention  of  piercing  stones  for  this  purpose,  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century.     See  Facio. 


Chaxmcey  Jerome, 
trade  with  England. 


JEWEL  HOLDER.  This  tool,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  179,  is 
intended  for  holding  jewels  when  cleaning  and  manipulating,  and  is  far 
superior  to  the  ordinary  tweezers  as  it  holds  the  jewel  firmly  and  there 


Fig.  17<). 

in  no  danger  of  it  snapping  out  as  with  tweezers.  The  jaws  being  made 
of  boxwood  it  will  not  injure  the  finest  setting.  The  metal  parts  are  of 
German  silver. 


Jeweling. 


204 


JEWELING.  The  act  of  fitting  in  jewels  for  pivots  to  run  in,  to 
diminish  wear  of  the  acting  parts.  Sapphires  and  rubies  are  used  in  the 
better  class  of  work,  while  in  cheaper  watches  garnets  are  substituted. 
In  escapement  holes,  where  endstones  are  used,  as  in  Fig.  i8i,  the  jewel 


Fig.  180. 


Fig.  181. 


in  a  loose  setting  is  fitted  into  a  recessed  hole,  and  upon  it  the  end-stone, 
also  set  in  metal,  is  laid,  and  the  whole  secured  bj  two  small  screws.  In 
cheaper  movements  the  jewel  is  rubbed  in,  as  shown  in  Fig.  i8o.  * 


JEWELING  TOOL.  Fig.  182  illustrates  Hutchinson's  Automatic 
Jeweling  Tool.  To  cut  a  setting  for  a  jewel 
place  tool  in  tail-stock  and  taper  in  head  of 
lathe,  and  see  that  corner  of  cutter  E  comes 
to  center.  If  it  does  not,  turn  screw  D  back 
or  forward  until  it  comes  to  the  center.  Now 
drill  hole  half  as  large  as  the  jewel  vou  wish 
to  set;  then  place  jewel  in  slot  A,  and  bring 
index  finger  over  until  jewel  is  tight  in  slot  A, 
being  careful  to  have  jewel  in  center  of  slot 


and  not  to  one  side, 
setting  exact  size. 


Fig,  1S2. 
Now  turn  set  screw  C  up  tight  and  tool  will  cut 


JEWELING  AND  STAKING  TOOL.  Hopkins' patent  jeweling 
and  staking  tool,  shown  in  Fig.  1S3,  is  an  ingenious  device,  and  one  that 
will  be  found  very  useful  to  the  watch  repairer.  As  the  spindle,  or 
handle,  to  which  the  cutters  and  burnishers  P.  P.  P.  are  attached,  is  sus- 
tained in  upright  position  when  in  use,  by  the  long  bearings  through  which 
it  passes  in  the  upright  F.  independently  of  the  lower  center,  the  hole  to 
be  cut  may  be  centered  either  from  below  or  above  as  preferred  ;  and  the 
depth  to  which  it  is  desired  a  cutter  shall  work  is  regulated  by  adjust- 
ment of  the  sliding  collar  E,  and  this  being  a  correct  uprighting,  as  well 
as  jeweling  tool,  with  it  a  pivot  hole,  or  a  jewel  setting  the  correct  center 
(upright)  of  which  has  been  lost,  may  readily  be  corrected,  or  its  true 
center  again  found,  and,  what  in  some  cases  would  be  a  very  desirable 
consideration,  by  careful  manipulation  with  the  cutter,  which  is  under 
perfect  control  of  the  operator,  the  position  of  jewel  settings  may  be  so 
changed  so  as  to  alter  the  depth  of  locking  of  the  wheels  to  any  desired 

*  For  full  directions  in  regard  to  making  and  setting  jewels  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Watch  and  Chronometer  Jeweling,  published  by  Geo.  K.  Hazlitt  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


205 


Jeweling  Tool. 


extent.  To  regulate  the  depth  to  which  it  is  desired  a  cutter  shall  work 
below  the  surface  of  a  plate,  lower  the  spindle  D  till,  when  moved  out 
sufficiently  far,  the  end  of  the  cutter  will  rest  down  on  the  top  of  the 
plate  to  be  operated  upon,  and  fasten  it  there  by  lightly  tightening  the 
screw  K ;  this  done,  adjust  and  fasten  the  collar  E  on  the  spindle  D,  to  the 


Fig.  183. 

same  height  above  the  top  of  the  upright  F  as  it  is  desired  the  cutter  shall 
work  below  the  surface  of  the  plate  on  which  it  now  rests.  This,  when 
the  spindle  D  has  been  again  set  free  by  loosening  the  screw  K,  will  of 
course  allow  the  cutter  to  sink  into  the  hole  to  be  operated  upon  to  the 
exact  distance  the  collar  E  had  been  set  above  the  top  of  F.  In  adjust- 
ing the  collar  E,  the  graduated  wedge.  No.  4,  or  the  jewel  to  be  set,  as 
preferred,  may  be  used  as  a  gauge.  The  burnishers.  No.  9,  are  used  both 
for  opening  and  closing  settings ;  the  same  burnisher,  having  chosen  one 


Jeweling  Caliper  Rest. 


206 


of  proper  size,  is  used  for  both  purposes  ;  the  side  being  used  for  open- 
ing the  setting,  and  the  beveled  and  rounded  end  for  burnishing  it 
down  again  over  the  jewel.  The  pieces  13  and  14  are  made  to  fit  in  the 
lower  end  of  the  spindle  D  (the  cutter  P  having  been  removed),  same 
as  an  ordinary  drill  stock,  and  are  used  for  burnishing  the  edges  of  a 
jewel  setting  down  flat  over  the  jewel,  countersinking  screw  heads, 
giving  end  shake  to  wheels,  etc.;  and  being  easily  made,  any  one 
owning  the  tool  can  make  these  for  himself,  of  forms  and  sizes 
to  suit  the  particular  work  in  hand.  For  uprighting  purposes, 
withdraw  the  spindle  D  and  substitute  No.  5,  the  rings,  No.  3,  being 
intended  for  laying  the  work  on,  on  the  tool  bed.  For  upright  drill- 
ing through  watch  plates,  mark  the  place  to  be  drilled  (prick  punch  it 
slightly)  with  the  cone  point  of  No.  5  ;  which  done,  turn  the  spindle 
No.  5  upside  down  and  rest  the  upper  end  of  the  drill  in  the  countersink 
in  its  end,  the  drill  being  operated  with  a  fiddle  bow  acting  on  a  collet 
placed  on  its  shank  for  the  purpose.  For  cutting  off  bushings  level  with 
a  watch  plate,  either  a  cutter  of  the  No.  13  or  14  class,  or  one  of  the  P 
cutters  can  be  used.  For  staking  or  riveting  wheels  upright  on  their 
pinions,  lay  the  stake  No.  7  level  on  the  tool  bed  (the  center  M  having 
been  fastened  down  out  of  the  way),  and  with  No  5  center  accurately  the 
hole  to  be  used  in  the  stake,  and  fasten  it  there  by  means  of  the  clamps 
N ;  then  remove  the  cone  end  of  No.  5,  and  place  a  punch  with  hole  in 
its  end  of  the  required  size,  on  the  part  m,  and  proceed  as  in  an  ordinary 
upright  staking  tool. 


JEWELING  CALIPER    REST.     This  tool   will  be  found  very 

useful  for  setting  jewels  in 
plates  or  settings,  in  counter- 
sinking for  screw  heads,  open- 
ing wheels  for  pinions  or  bush- 
ings, turning  barrel  heads,  etc. 
The  sliding  jaws  of  the  cali- 
pers should  be  so  adjusted 
that  when  the  swinging  part 
is  brought  back  snugly  against 
them,  the  front  cutting  edge 
of  the  cutter  in  the  sliding 
spindle  will  exactly  line  with 
the  center  of  the  lathe  spindle. 
Then  if  the  calipers  are  at  the 
right  height,  when  a  jewel  or 
jewel  setting  is  placed  in  the 
^jy   j^4   "  jaws  of  the  caliper  it  will  move 

the  edge  of  the  cutter  outward  from  the  lathe  center  just  half  the  diameter 
of  the  jewel  then  in  the  caliper,  and  the  cutting  made  at  that  distance 


207  Jewel  Pin. 

from  the  center  will  exactly  coincide  with  the  size  of  the  jewel  to  be  set 
If  however,  if  set  and  worked  as  above,  it  is  found  that  the  hole  cut  is  too 
large  for  the  jewel,  it  will  indicate  that  the  calipers  are  too  low  down,  and 
should  be  raised,  provision  for  which  is  made  in  the  construction  of  the 
tool.  If  on  the  other  hand,  the  cutting  is  found  too  small  to  fit,  it  will 
indicate  the  calipers  should  be  lowered.  The  final  cutting  for  the  jewel 
seat  should  be  made  hy  running  the  center  straight  inward  from  the  face 
of  the  plate;  the  adjustable  screw  stop  on  the  back  end  of  the  sliding 
spindle  serving  to  gauge  the  depth  of  the  cutting. 

JEWEL  PIN.  To  set  a  jewel  pin  in  the  table  roller  (of  American 
watches)  correctly,  is  a  difficult  task.  Where  the  jewel  pin  is  broken  off, 
you  will  often  save  much  valuable  time  by  examining  the  broken  part 
with  your  glass  and  noting  the  exact  location  of  the  pin  before  disturbing 
it.  In  some  movements  the  jewel  pin  will  be  set  as  in  Fig.  185,  occupy- 
ing about  two-thirds  of  the  hole,  in  another  movement  the  pin  will  not 
occupy  much  over  one-half  the  space,  as  shown  in  Fig  186.  By  using 
care  in  selecting  a  jewel  pin  of 
precisely  the  same  size  as  the 
old  one  and  in  inserting  it  in  the 
same  place,  nine  out  of  every 
ten  movements  will  be  found 
mechanically  perfect  and  the 
balance  have  a  good  motion  if 
the  escapement  is  perfect.  Most 
watchmakers  remove  the  table 
roller  from  the  balance  staff,  in 
case  the  jewel  pin  is  loose.  This 
you  will  find  unnecessary  if  you 
will   make    the    following  de- 


C 


Fig.  185.  Fig.  186. 

Fig.  187. 


scribed  tool  and  use  as  directed.  Take  a  piece  of  copper  wire  about  half 
the  thickness  of  a  common  pin  tongue  and  bend  it  as  shown  in  Fig.  187, 
so  that  it  will  be  about  one  and  one-eighth  inch  long.  Cut  or  saw  a 
groove  in  the  inside  of  the  ends,  sufficiently  deep  to  hold  on  to  the  table 
roller,  say  one-fourth  inch  from  the  end.  This  can  be  easily  bent  to 
accommodate  all  sizes  of  tables.  If  you  wish  to  soften  the  cement,  to 
tighten  or  replace  a  new  jewel  pin,  it  is  only  necessary  to  slip  on  the 
copper  wire,  and  hold  the  extreme  outer  end  in  the  flame  of  a  small 
alcohol  lamp  a  few  moments  and  sufficient  heat  will  follow  the  copper 
wire  to  soften  the  cement.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  keep  the  pin  in 
the  proper  position,  and  when  sufficiently  heated,  remove  the  wire 
quickly  and  allow  the  table  to  cool.  By  use  of  this  little  tool  there  is  no 
need  of  removing  the  table  roller,  and  absolutely  no  danger  of  injuring 
the  finest  expansion  balance,  as  the  tool  need  not,  and  must  not  touch 
the  balance.    The  end  of  this  tool  is  held  in  the  flame  by  a  pair  of 


Jewel  Pin  Setter.  208 

soldering  tweezers.     Always  use  shellac  for  cementing  the  jewel  pin 
in  the  table  roller. 


JEWEL  PIN  SETTER.     Fig  188  illustrates  the  Logan  patent.    It 
is  an  excellent  tool  and  will  save  the  workman  considerable  time  and 


Fig. 


much  annoyance  by  its  use.  Every  watchmaker  is  aware  what  a  difficult 
and  tedious  matter  it  is  to  set  a  jewel  pin  correctly.  With  this  tool  the 
job  is  accomplished  quickly  and  accurately. 

JODIN,  JEAN.  A  clever  French  watchmaker  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Author  of  a  work  on  horology.  He  was  the  first  to  point  out 
that  success  in  the  timing  of  horizontal  watches  depends  on  the  correct 
proportioning  of  all  their  parts. 

JOINT  PUSHER.  A  small  piece  of  tempered  steel  wire  mounted 
in  a  wooden  handle  and  used  for  inserting  and  removing  joint  pins. 

JURGENSEN,  URBAN.  He  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  Denmark, 
August  5,  1776.  His  father  was  a  watchmaker  to  the  court,  and  under 
him  Urban  learned  the  art.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one  he  visited  Neuf- 
chatel,  Switzerland,  where  he  remained  for  eighteen  months  and  after- 
wards resided  for  six  months  in  Geneva,  being  constantly  occupied  with 
mathematical  and  practical  work.  He  afterwards  went  to  Paris  and  was 
admitted  to  the  houses  of  M.  Breguet  and  Ferdinand  Berthoud,  and  for 
some  time  worked  under  the  immediate  instruction  of  the  former.  He 
spent  some  time  in  London  and  then  returned  to  Paris,  and  from  there 
went  to  Geneva  and  Neufchatel.  He  returned  to  Denmark  in  1801,  and 
was  offered  a  partnership  with  a  very  clever  artist,  M.  Etienne  Magnin, 
who  for  some  years  had  enjoyed  a  royal  bounty  to  make  longitude, 
chronometers  for  the  use  of  ships.  Young  Jurgensen,  however,  pre- 
ferred to  enter  into  partnership  with  his  father,  and  his  younger  brother, 
Frederick,  afterwards  court  watchmaker,  was  his  first  pupil.  In  1804 
he  compiled  a  memoir  entitled,  "On  the  Art  of  Watchmaking,"  or  "Rules 
for  the  Exact  Measurement  of  Time,"  which  was  published  at  royal 
expense.  A  new  and  improved  edition  was  published  the  following  year 
in  French.  In  the  same  year  he  received  the  silver  medal  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Sciences,  at  Copenhagen,  for  a  treatise  entitled,  "On  the  best 


209  Jurgensen. 

mode  of  making  and  hardening  Watcli  Springs.''  He  resolved,  owing 
to  the  scarcity  of  competent  help  and  his  own  poor  health,  to  remove  to 
Switzerland,  and  accordingly  in  1807  he  removed  to  Neufchatel,  where 
he  remained  two  years.  In  1809  he  returned  to  Denmark.  In  1815  he 
was  made  a  member  of  "The  Royal  Society  of  Sciences."  In  1822  he 
was  made  superintendent  of  all  chronometers  belonging  to  the  Royal 
Navy,  and  in  1824  he  was  decorated  with  the  Gold  Cross  of  Dannebrog. 
He  died  on  the  14th  of  May,  1830,  being  53  years  old. 

JURGENSEN,  JULES.  Son  of  Urban  and  one  of  the  most  noted 
watchmakers  of  the  19th  century.  He  was 
born  at  Locle,  July  27,  1808,  during  the  tem- 
porary residence  of  his  parents  in  Switzer- 
land. During  his  youth  he  worked  under 
the  immediate  instruction  of  his  father,  but 
in  1835  he  went  to  Switzerland,  and  from 
there  to  Paris  and  London,  where  he  studied 
under  the  best  masters  in  physics,  mechanics 
and  astronomy.  Later  he  established  a 
branch  of  his  father's  business  in  Locle  and 
devoted  his  attention  to  the  construction 
of  pocket  chronometers.  The  result  of  his 
study  and  experiments  was  the  celebrated  *^"*^  Jurgensen. 

Jurgensen  watch  of  to-day.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in 
Geneva  and  he  died  December  17, 1877.  His  son,  Jules  F.  U.  Jurgensen, 
succeeded  to  the  business. 

KENDALL,  LARCUM.  A  noted  watchmaker  of  London,  who 
constructed  a  timekeeper  on  Harrison's  principle,  which  was  given  to 
Captain  Cook,  when  he  commanded  the  Resolution,  in  1776. 

KULLBERG,  VICTOR.  A  prominent  horologist  and  successful 
chronometer  maker.  He  was  born  at  Wisby,  on  the  Island  of  Gothland, 
in  1824.  He  went  to  London  in  185 1,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
His  chronometers  stood  at  the  top  of  the  list  in  the  trials  from  1880  to 
1890  inclusive.     He  died  July  7,  1890. 

LACQUER.  The  ordinary  lacquer  of  commerce  is  composed  of 
spirits  of  wine  and  clear  shellac  in  the  proportion  of  i  oz.  of  shellac 
to  a  pint  of  spirit.  Heat  should  not  be  applied,  but  the  ingredients 
placed  in  a  glass  stoppered  bottle  and  shaken  from  time  to  time  until  the 
shellac  is  thoroughly  dissolved  or  combined  with  the  spirit.  Various 
tints  may  be  given  lacquer  by  adding  small  quantities  of  aniline  colors, 
Dreviously  well  mixed  with  water  and  free  from  lumps. 


Lange.  SIO 

LANGE,  ADOLPH.  Adolph  Lange  was  born  in  Dresden,  in  1815, 
and  was  apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker  of  tliat  place.  At  the  expiration 
of  his  apprenticeship  he  went  to  Paris  to  perfect  himself  in  the  higher 
branches  of  horology.  He  became  the  foreman  in  the  celebrated  work- 
shop of  Winnerl.  He  later  returned  to  Dresden,  where  he  became  the 
partner  of  his  former  master.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  manufacture 
of  astronomical  clocks,  chronometers  and  fine  watches,  and  soon  secured 
for  himself  an  enviable  reputation.  About  this  time  the 
government  of  Saxony  was  in  search  of  some  means  of 
bettering  the  condition  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  mount- 
ainous districts  of  Saxony.  The  condition  of  these 
people  was  most  pitiable,  as  for  generations  they  had 
lived  there  in  extreme  poverty.  Mr.  Lange  was  con- 
fident that  if  the  art  of  watchmaking  was  introduced 
Adolph  Lange,  j^to  this  region  the  desired  result  might  be  achieved. 
The  government  looked  favorably  on  his  proposition,  and  in  1845  he, 
■with  the  assistance  of  the  State,  established  a  watchmaker's  school 
at  Glashutte.  The  populace  did  not  take  kindly  to  the  idea,  and 
it  was  very  up-hill  work  for  awhile ;  but  his  efforts  were  finally  crowned 
with  success.  He  taught  the  youths  of  the  village  the  art  of  watchmak- 
ing and  installed  them  in  his  workshop.  In  less  than  two  years  the  first 
watches  were  marketed,  and  the  success  of  the  enterprise  assured.  In 
time  his  pupils  became  teachers,  and  gradually,  but  surely,  the  art  of  hor- 
ology gained  a  foothold,  until  now  nearly  ihe  entire  population  of  Glas- 
hutte are  engaged  in  horological  and  kindred  pursuits.  He  died  Dec.  5, 
1875,  leaving  two  sons,  Richard  and  Emile,  who  are  still  engaged  in 
manufacturing  fine  watches,  chronometers  and  decks  of  precision,  in 
Glashutte. 

LANTERN  PINION.  A  pinion  formed  of  two  circular  brass,  or 
other  metal  plates,  and  connected  by  means  of  short  steel  wires. 

"LAP.  A  disc  used  in  conjunction  with  a  lathe  for  polishing  or  cut- 
ting. Laps  are  made  of  steel,  copper,  ivory,  etc.,  and  are  charged  with 
the  cutting  or  polishing  compounds.     See  Diamond  Laps. 

LATHE.  A  mechanical  device  used  for  shaping  articles  by  causing 
them  to  revolve  while  being  brought  into  contact  with  cutting  tools. 
Those  who  contemplate  buying  a  lathe  will  do  well  to  avoid  the  cheap 
imitations  of  the  American  pattern,  which  are  made  by  irresponsible 
makers  in  foreign  countries,  and  foisted  upon  an  unsuspecting  public, 
and  guaranteed  true  and  "  as  good  as  the  American."  They  are  usually 
nicely  finished,  but  inferior  both  in  material  and  workmanship,  their  great- 
est failure  being  their  untruth.  If  an  untrue  American  lathe,  by  any 
possibility  is  allowed  to  escape  the  inspector  and  finds  its  way  upon  the 


211 


Lathe. 


market,  the  manufacturer  it  only  too  glad  to  exchange  it  for  a  perfect 
article,  for  his  reputation  is  at  stake;  but  who  are  you  going  back  on  in 
the  event  of  one  of  these  cheap  imitations  proring  untrue?  There  are 
American  made  lathes  upon  the  market  that  are  as  inferior  in  many 
respects  as  the  imitations,  and  the  watchmaker  will  do  well  to  do  with- 
out  a  lathe  until  such  time  as  he  can  afford   to  purchase  one  of  known 


Fig.  191. 

reputation.  Among  the  first  class  American  lathes  upon  the  market 
may  be  mentioned  the  Webster-Whitcomb,  Fig.  igi ;  the  Moseley,  Fig. 
192;  the  Hopkins,  Fig.  193,  and  the  Rivett,  Fig.  194. 

An  excellent  lathe  for  the  heavier  work  of  watchmakers  and  jewelers, 
such  as  cannot  be  performed  with  satisfaction  on  the  watchmaker's  lathe, 
is  the  No.  4.  Barnes,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  195. 


Fig.  li)2. 

It  is  manufactured  by  the  W.  F.  &  John  Barnes  Company,  Rockford, 
111.  For  screw  cutting,  the  manufacture  of  watchmaker's  tools,  fishing 
reels,  repairs  on  tower  clocks,  in  fact,  all  the  heavier  work  of  the  trade, 
it  is  admirably  fitted. 


Lathe.  313 

The  American  lathe  of  to-day  is  a  marvel  of  completeness  in  its  parts, 
and  how  many  hours,  yea  months,  of  study  and  experiment  liave  been 
bestowed  upon  it  by  its  projectors  and  makers  to  acquire  these  points  of 
utility  and  excellency.  What  a  vast  amount  of  care  has  been  exercised 
for  the  production  of  a  perfect  lathe!  Must  this  care  cease  at  the  mo- 
ment the  lathe  passes  into  the  hands  of  the  watchmaker? 

It  is  a  very  easy  matter  at  any  time  to  wipe  off  the  dust  and  oil  that 
may  accumulate,  but  does  this  alone  constitute  due  care?  There  may  be 
a  nice  glass  case  to  cover  it  and  keep  oS  the  dust,  and  a  very  good  idea 
it  is,  if  faithfully  used;  but  if  a  counter  shaft  is  on  the  bench, or  much 
lathe  work  is  to  be  done,  it  soon  falls  into  blissful  desuetude,  or  finishes 
its  usefulness  by  being  broken.  Then,  often,  a  cloth  is  wrapped  about 
the  lathe,  which  soon  gets  soiled  and  looks  badly,  let  alone  the  poor  pro- 
tection it  affords. 


Fig.  193. 

Dust  is  omnipresent  and  the  greatest  enemy  to  all  active  machinery; 
it  insidiously  makes  its  way  into  every  crease  and  crevice,  and  if  not 
promptly  removed  will  cause  untold  damage.  We  cannot  get  rid  of  it 
and  must  (like  the  industrious  housewife)  wage  a  constant  warfare 
against  it. 

The  care  necessary  to  be  given  to  a  fine  lathe  differs  from  most  other 
tools;  it  is  not  confined  alone  to  the  removal  of  dust  and  keeping  clean, 
but  the  fitting  properly  of  the  several  parts  as  used.  There  should  be  no 
overstraining  when  tightening  screws,  chucks,  etc.,  or  when  fitting 
articles  in  both  wire  and  wheel  chucks,  and  so  on  through  the  list. 

The  face  of  the  lathe  bed  when  it  comes  from  the  makers  is  (or  should 
be)  perfectly  true  from  end  to  end,  in  order  that  head  and  tail  stocks 
will  meet  on  a  direct  line  of  centers,  even  should    they  be  changed  end 


213 


Lathe. 


for  end,  and  a  good  lathe  will  meet  those  requirements.  Now,  it  is  obvi- 
ous to  any  thinking  mind  that  if  this  face  becomes  injured  hy  neglect, 
whereby  the  nickling  is  removed  in  spots  or  portions,  they  -svill,  in  all 
probability  become  rusty ;  this  rust  will  then  eat  away  and  throw  oflF 
more,  and  soon  the  face  presents  an  uneven  surface,  which  will  tend  to 
destroy  the  line  of  centers  between  head  and  tail  stocks. 

The  head  stock,  usually  occupying  one  position,  causes  less  wear  at 
this  point  or  place,  while  the  hand-rest  and  tail  stock  are  constantly 
being  shifted,  so  where  there  is  more   motion  or  action  there  must  be 


Fig.  194. 

more  wear,  especially  if  dust,  chips,  or  grit  be  allowed  to  accumulate 
beneath  them,  and  though  the  wear  is  seemingly  imperceptible,  it  nerer- 
theless  is  there,  and  will  sooner  or  later  manifest  itself,  and  this  is  a  sig- 
nal that  the  level  of  the  bed  is  becoming  impaired,  and,  necessarily,  the 
truth.  Thus  too  much  care  and  attention  cannot  be  exercised  in  guard- 
ing against  chips  and  dust  when  sliding  hand  rest  back  and  forth  on  the 
bed. 

At  the  end  of  the  bed,  where  the  tail  stock  takes  position,  many  watch- 
makers have  the  tail   stock   off,  and  this  portion  is  more  exposed  to 


Lathe. 


214 


atmospheric  action,  also  receiving  perspiration  from  the  hands  when  they 
come  in  contact.  Again,  others  let  the  tail  stock  remain  in  position, 
only  removing  when  it  comes  in  the  way.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  well 
to  devise  some  means  lor  the  protection  of  the  bed ;  this  is  easily  done 
by  making  a  sheath  of  chamois  skin  to  slip  tightly  over  the  bed;  it  can 
be  removed  and  replaced  readily,  and  when  it  becomes  soiled,  can  be 
washed. 

This  sheath  should  be  fully  two-thirds  the  length  of  bed,  or  reaching 
from  tail  end  up  to  hand  rest  when  it  is  close  to  head  stock.  It  preserves 
the  bed  from  dampness,  which  is  considerable  in  some  climates,  also  the 
perspiration  of  the  hand  and  flying  chips  and  dust.  In  the  second  case, 
if  the  tail  stock  is  allowed  to  remain  on  lathe,  or,  if  removed  and  placed 
on  the  bench,  it  is  subjected  to  all  the  evils  the  bed  is  in  the  former. 


Fig.  195. 

Our  opinion  is,  the  tail  stock  should  be  kept  in  its  compartment  in  a 
tight  fitting  drawer,  away  from  dust  and  accidental  knocks  of  other  tools 
on  the  bench ;  the  tail  spindle  not  being  nickeled,  is  more  liable  to  rust  if 
left  exposed,  and  should  be  kept  wrapped  in  a  sheath  of  oiled  paper. 
This  may  seem  superfluous  and  too  much  bother,  yet  it  is  taking  proper 
care  which  tells  in  the  end. 

The  bottom  of  tail  stock  should  always  be  brushed  oflT  before  placing 
jn  position,  not  only  for  its  protection,  but  for  fear  some  particle  of  grit 
may  be  adhering,  thereby  throwing  It  out  of  truth,  and  screwing  it  down 
tight  only  adds  injury  to  the  lathe  if  allowed  to  remain. 

The  head  stock  demands  close  attention ;  the  spindle  should  run  freely 
without  end  shake,  and  about  once  a  week  should  be  speeded,  meanwhile 
administering  oil  until  it  leaves  the  bearings  clean,  and  then  wiped  oS. 
A  little  oil  should  be  added  every  day.  See  that  the  mouth  of  the  spin- 
dle is  kept  bright  and  clean ;  thrust  a  strip  of  cloth  clear  through  spindle 
every  now  and  then,  that  all  dust  and  dirt  may  be  removed. 

Wire  and  wheel  chucks  should  often  be  washed  in  gasoline  to  remove 
gummy  dirt  and  oil  which  is  constantly  adhering,  and  it  is  even  well 
each  time  a  chuck  is  used,  to  wash  off  first,  then  wipe  dry.    A  little  dirt 


215  Lepaute. 

on  mouth  of  spindle,  or  on  chuck,  often  throws  it  out  of  truth,  and  conse- 
quentlj  the  article  fastened  therein  also. 

When  fitting  head  or  tail  stocks,  or  in  fact  any  attachment,  do  so  care- 
fully. Do  not  bang  it  in  place  as  if  you  held  a  grudge  against  it,  and 
when  in  position  see  that  they  are  tightly  screwed  in  place. 

Having  too  much  end  shake  on  live  spindle,  especially  in  soft  lathes, 
causes  uneven  wear  in  its  bearings,  besides  not  being  reliable  for  true 
pivoting  or  any  such  work. 

When  the  cost  of  a  lathe  is  taken  into  consideration,  it  goes  to  prove 
that  it  is  not  easily  replaced.  Where  is  the  jeweler  with  a  stock  of 
goods  who  would  retire  without  first  seeing  his  valuables  were  in  the 
safe,  but  how  many  are  there  who  think  of  giving  this  protection  to  their 
lathes.'  Some  do,  but  the  greater  per  cent  do  not.  "It  is  a  "pious  plan" 
to  see  that  the  head  stock,  tail  stock,  and  attachments  are  in  the  safe,  and 
should  a  fire  break  out  that  endangers  the  store,  and  no  chance  to  save  it, 
the  feeling  of  satisfaction  is  great  to  know  the  lathe  is  safe,  that  is,  the 
more  expensive  parts,  for  the  bed  can  be  purchased  at  a  nominal  cost 
compared  to  the  attachments. 

A  word  about  chuck  blocks  or  stands.  The  best  kinds  are  those  made 
to  fit  in  a  drawer  of  the  bench  and  the  holes  sunk  deep  enough  to  let  the 
chuck  (wire)  drop  full  length,  or  to  the  head,  the  hole  being  counter- 
sunk to  admit  the  bevel  portion.  They  can  easily  be  picked  out  with  the 
finger  nail.     Have  the  block  thoroughly  soaked  with  oil. 

To  prevent  rusting  of  tools,  and  especially  if  the  bed  shows  signs  of 
rust  spots,  here  is  a  good  old  remedy :  Procure  some  blue  ointment, 
spread  it  on  a  cloth  and  rub  the  tools  or  lathe  briskly,  then  wipe  off"  with  a 
clean  cloth,  and  wipe  dry.  This  ointment  leaves  a  thin  coating  of  mercury 
which  prevents  the  action  of  dampness  on  the  tools.  This  cure  need  not 
be  resorted  to  more  than  once  a  month,  and  keep  ointment  away  from 
gold  cases  and  watch  movements.  If  you  find  your  lathe  bed  has  got  in 
such  a  condition  as  to  destroy  its  truth,  send  it  at  once  to  the  makers  and 
have  it  put  in  first-class  condition.  Do  not  trust  it,  for  the  sake  of  sav- 
ing a  little,  to  some  irresponsible  firm  for  repairs. 

LEPAUTE,  J.  A.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  French  horo- 
logists.  He  did  much  to  improve  his  art,  especially  in  regard  to  turret 
clocks.  He  was  the  author  of  a  volume  on  horology,  which  in  its  time 
was  a  standard  authority.  He  was  born  at  Montmedi  in  1709  and  died  in 
1789. 

LEPINE  MOVEMENT.  An  extremely  thin  bar  movement. 
Lepine  introduced  his  improvements  in  1776  and  they  consisted  of 
the  suppression  of  the  pillar  plate,  the  fuzee  and  chain  and  one  of 
the  supports  to  the  barrel  arbor.    The  Lepine  family  resided  at  Fer- 


Lever.  Escapement.  216 

ney,  near  Geneva,  where  Voltaire  established  a  watch  factory.  Bre- 
quet  improved  on  the  Lepine  system  by  causing  the  mainspring  to 
be  wound  up  at  the  back  of  the  watch  through  the  dome,  instead  of 
by  a  square  through  the  face  of  the  dial. 

LE  ROY.  JULIEN.  A  celebrated  French  horologist.  He  was  the 
inventor  of  the  horizontal  mechanism  for  turret  clocks.  He  intro- 
duced improvements  in  nearly  all  the  branches  of  horology  of  his 
day.     He  died  in  1759. 

LE  ROY,  PIERRE.  A  son  of  Julien  Le  Roy  and  unquestionably 
the  greatest  of  all  French  horologists.  He  was  born  in  1717  and  died 
in  1785.     He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Duplex  escapement. 

LESSELS,  M.  A  celebrated  German  clockmaker  who  worked 
for  a  long  time  with  Brequet,  He  was  the  maker  of  a  number  of 
excellent  astronomical  clocks  for  Swiss,  German  and  Russian  observa- 
tories.   He  died  in  1849. 

LEVER  ESCAPEMENT,*  The  lever  escapement  is  derived 
from  Graham's  deadbeat  escapement  for  clocks.  Thomas  Mudge 
was  the  first  horologist  who  successfully  applied  it  to  watches  in  the 
detached  form,  about  1750.  The  locking  faces  of  the  pallets  were 
arcs  of  circles  struck  from  the  pallet  centers.  Many  improvements 
were  made  upon  it  until  to-day  it  is  the  best  form  of  escapement  for 
a  general  purpose  watch,  and  when  made  on  mechanical  principles 
is  capable  of  producing  first  rate  results. 

It  is  not  obligatory  in  the  lever,  as  in  the  verge,  to  have  an  uneven 
number  of  teeth  in  the  wheel.  While  nearly  all  have  15  teeth,  we 
might  make  them  of  14  or  16;  occasionally  we  find  some  in  compli- 
cated watches  of  12  teeth,  and  in  old  English  watches  of  30,  which  is 
a  clumsy  arrangement,  and  if  the  pallets  embrace  only  three  teeth  in 
the  latter,  the  pallet  center  cannot  be  pitched  on  a  tangent. 

Although  advisable  from  a  timing  standpoint  that  the  teeth  in  the 
escape  wheel  should  divide  evenly  into  the  number  of  beats  made 
per  minute  in  a  watch  with  seconds  hand,  it  is  not,  strictly  speaking, 
necessary  that  it  should  do  so,  as  an  example  will  show.  We  will 
take  an  ordinary  watch,  beating  300  times  per  minute;  we  will  fit  an 
escape  wheel  of  16  teeth;  multiply  this  by  2,  as  there  is  a  forward 
and  then  a  return  motion  of  the  balance  and  consequently  two  beats 
for  each  tooth,  making  16X2=32  beats  for  each  revolution  of  the 
escape  wheel.  300  beats  are  made  per  minute;  divide  this  by  the 
beats  made  on  each  revolution,  and  we  have  the  number  of  times  in 

♦The  student  will  do  well  to  read:  The  Detached  Lever  Escapement,  by  Moritz 
Grossman;  Modern  Horology  in  Theory  and  Practice,  by  Claudius  Saunier,  and 
Watch  and  Clock  Making,  by  David  Glasgow. 


217  Lever  Escapement. 

which  the  escape  wheel  revolves  per  minute,  namely,  300-^-32=9.375, 
This  number  then  is  the  proportion  existing  for  the  teeth  and  pitch 
diameters  of  the  4th  wheel  and  escape  pinion.  We  must  now  find  a 
suitable  numberof  teeth  for  this  wheel  and  pinion.  Of  available 
pinions  for  a  watch,  the  only  one  which  would  answer  would  be  one 
of  8  leaves,  as  any  other  number  would  give  a  fractional  number  of 
teeth  for  the  4th  wheel,  therefore  9.375X8  =  75  teeth  in  4th  wheel. 
Now  as  to  the  proof:  as  is  well  known,  if  we  multiply  the  number  of 
teeth  contained  in  4th  and  escape  wheels  also  by  2,  for  the  reason 
previously  given,  and  divide  by  the  leaves  in  the  escape  pinion,  we 
get  the  number  of  beats  made  per  minute;  therefore  ^3jl|6__s  —  ^oo 
beats  per  minute. 

Pallets  can  be  made  to  embrace  more  than  three  teeth,  but  would 
be  much  heavier  and  therefore  the  mechanical  action  would  suffer. 
They  can  also  be  made  to  embrace  fewer  teeth,  but  the  necessary  side 
shake  in  the  pivot  holes  would  prove  very  detrimental  to  a  total  lift- 
ing angle  of  10°,  which  represents  the  angle  of  movement  in  modern 
watches.  Some  of  the  finest  ones  only  make  8  or  9°  of  a  movement: 
the  smaller  the  angle  the  greater  will  the  effects  of  defective  work- 
manship be;  10°  is  a  common-sense  angle  and  gives  a  safe  escape- 
ment capable  of  fine  results.  Theoretically,  if  a  timepiece  could  be 
produced  in  which  the  balance  would  vibrate  without  being  con- 
nected with  an  escapement,  we  would  have  reached  a  step  nearer 
the  goal.  Practice  has  shown  this  to  be  the  proper  theory  to  work  on. 
Hence,  the  smaller  the  pallet  and  impulse  angles  the  less  will  the 
balance  and  escapement  be  connected.  The  chronometer  is  still 
more  highly  detached  than  the  lever. 

The  pallet  embracing  three  teeth  is  sound  and  practical,  and  when 
applied  to  a  15-tooth  wheel,  this  arrangement  offers  certain  geometri- 
cal and  mechanical  advantages  in  its  construction,  which  we  will 
notice  in  due  time.  15  teeth  divide  evenly  into  360°  leaving  an  inter- 
val of  24  degrees  from  tooth  to  toothy 
which  is  also  the  angle  at  which  the 
locking  faces  of  the  teeth  are  inclined 
from  the  center,  which  fact  will  be 
found  convenient  when  we  come  to 
cut  our  wheel. 

From  locking  to  locking  on  the  pal- 
let scaping  over  three  teeth,  the  angle 
is  60°,  which  is  equal  to  2>^  spaces  of 
the  wheel.     Fig.  196  illustrates  the 
Fig.  196.  lockings,  spanning  this  arc.     If   the 

pallets  embraced  4  teeth,  the  angle 
would  be  84°;  or  in  case  of  a  i6-tooth  wheel  scaping  over  3  teeth,  the 
angle  would  be  -ifiiras  _  5634:°. 


Lever  Escapement. 


218 


Pallets  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds,  namely:  equidistant  and 
circular.  The  equidistant  pallet  is  so-cafled  because  the  lockings  are 
an  equal  distance  from  the  center;  sometimes  it  is  also  called  the  tan- 
gential escapement,  on  account  of  the  unlocking  taking  place  on  the 
intersection  of  tangent  AC  with  EB,  and  FB  with  AD,  the  tangents, 
which  is  the  valuable  feature  of  this  form  of  escapement. 
AC  and  AD,  Fig.  197,  are  tangents  to  the  primitive  circle  GH.    ABE 

and  ABF  are  angles  of  30° 
each,  together  therefore 
forming  the  angle  FBE  of 
60°.  The  locking  circle  MN 
is  struck  from  the  pallet  cen- 
ter A;  the  interangles  being 
equal,  consequently  the  pal- 
lets must  be  equidistant. 

The  weak   point    of   this 
pallet  is  that  the  lifting  is 
not  performed  so  favorably; 
by    examining     the     lifting 
^*^-  ^-  planes  MO  and  NP,  we  see 

that  the  discharging  edge  O,  is  closer  to  the  center.  A,  than  the  dis- 
charging edge,  P;  consequently  the  lifting  on  the  engaging  pallet  is 
performed  on  a  shorter  lever  arm  than  on  the  disengaging  pallet,  also 
any  inequality  in  workmanship  would  prove  more  detrimental  on  the 
engaging  than  on  the  disengaging  pallet.  The  equidistant  pallet 
requires  fine  workmanship  throughout.  We  have  purposely  shown  it 
of  a  width  of  10°,  which  is  the  widest  we  can  employ  in  a  15-tooth 
wheel,  and  shows  the  defects 
of  this  escapement  more 
readily  than  if  we  had  used  a 
narrow  pallet.  A  narrower 
pallet  is  advisable,  as  the 
difference  in  the  discharging 
edges  will  be  less,  and  the 
lifting  arms  would,  therefore, 
not  show  so  much  difference 
in  leverage. 

The  circular  pallet  is  some- 
times appropriately  called 
"  the  pallet  with  equal  lifts," 
as  the  lever  arms  AMO  and  ANP,  Fig.  198,  are  equal  lengths. 
It  will  be  noticed  by  examining  the  diagram,  that  the  pallets  are 
bisected  by  the  30°  lines  EB  and  FB,  one  half  their  width  being 
placed  on  each  side  of  these  lines.  In  this  pallet  we  have  two 
locking    circles,    MP,    for  the   engaging   pallet,   and    NO  for    the 


Fig,  198. 


219 


Lever  Escapement. 


disengaging  pallet.  The  weak  points  in  this  escapement  are 
that  the  unlocking  resistance  is  greater  on  the  engaging  than 
on  the  disengaging  pallet,  and  that  neither  of  them  lock  on  the 
tangents  AC  and  AD,  at  the  points  of  intersection  with  EB  and 
FB.  The  narrower  the  circular  pallet  is  made,  the  nearer  to 
the  tangent  will  the  unlocking  be  performed.  In  neither  the  equi- 
distant or  circular  pallets  can  the  unlocking  resistance  be  exactly  the 
same  on  each  pallet,  as  in  the  engaging  pallet  the  friction  takes  place 
before  AB,  the  line  of  centers,  which  is  more  severe  than  when  this 
line  has  been  passed,  as  is  the  case  with  the  disengaging  pallet;  this 
fact  proportionately  increases  the  existing  defects  of  the  circular  over 
the  equidistant  pallet,  and  vice  versa,  but  for  the  same  reason,  the 
lifting  in  the  equidistant  is  proportionately  accompanied  by  more 
friction  than  in  the  circular. 

Both   equidistant  and  circular  pallets    have  their  adherents;  the 
finer  Swiss,  French  and  German  watches  are  made  with  equidistant 

escapements,  while  the  majority  of 
English  and  American  watches  con- 
tain the  circular.  In  our  opinion 
the  English  are  wise  in  adhering  to 
the  circular  form.  We  think  a 
ratchet  wheel  should  not  be  em- 
ployed with  equidistant  pallets. 
By  examining  Fig.  197,  we  see  an 
English  pallet  of  this  form.  We 
have  shown  its  defects  in  such  a 
wide  pallet  as  the  English  (as  we 
have  before  stated),  because  they 
are  more  readily  perceived;  also, 
on  account  of  the  shapeof  theteeth, 
there  is  danger  of  the  discharging  edge,  P,  dipping  so  deep  into  the 
wheel,  as  to  make  considerable  drop  necessary,  or  the  pallets  would 
touch  on  the  backs  of  the  teeth.  In  the  case  of  the  club  tooth,  the 
latter  is  hollowed  out,  therefore  less  drop  is  required.  We  have 
noticed  that,  theoretically,  it  is  advantageous  to  make  the  pallets  nar- 
rower than  the  English,  both  for  the  equidistant  and  circular  escape- 
ments. There  is  an  escapement,  Fig.  199,  which  is  just  the  opposite  to 
the  English.  The  entire  lift  is  performed  by  the  wheel,  while  in  the 
case  of  the  ratchet  wheel,  the  entire  lifting  angle  is  on  the  pallets; 
also,  the  pallets  being  as  narrow  as  they  can  be  made,  consistent 
with  strength,  it  has  the  good  points  of  both  the  equidistant  and  cir- 
cular pallets,  as  the  unlocking  can  be  performed  on  the  tangent  and 
the  lifting  arms  are  of  equal  length.  The  wheel,  however,  is  so  much 
heavier  as  to  considerably  increase  the  inertia;  also,  we  have  a  metal 
surface  of  quite  an  extent  sliding  over  a  thin  jewel.     For  practical 


Fig.  199. 


Lever  Escapement.  220 

reasons,  therefore,  it  has  been  slightly  altered  in  form  and  is  only 
used  in  cheap  work,  being  easily  made. 

We  will  now  consider  the  drop,  which  is  a  clear  loss  of  power,  and, 
if  excessive,  is  the  cause  of  much  irregularity.  It  should  be  as  small 
as  possible  consistent  with  perfect  freedom  of  action. 

In  so  far  as  angtilar  measurements  are  concerned,  no  hard  and  fast 
rule  can  be  applied  to  it,  the  larger  the  escape  wheel  the  smaller 
should  be  the  angle  allowed  for  drop.  Authorities  on  the  subject 
allow  i>^°  drop  for  the  club  and  2°  for  the  ratchet  tooth.  It  is  a  fact 
that  escape  wheels  are  not  cut  perfectly  true;  the  teeth  are  apt  to 
bend  slightly  from  the  action  of  the  cutters.  The  truest  wheel  can 
be  made  of  steel,  as  each  tooth  can  be  successively  ground  after 
being  hardened  and  tempered.  Such  a  wheel  would  require  less 
drop  than  one  of  any  other  metal.  Supposing  we  have  a  wheel  with 
a  primitive  diameter  of  7.5  mm.,  what  is  the  amount  of  drop,  allow- 
ing I >^°  by  angular  measurement?  7.5X3.i4i6-t-36oXi.5  =  .oq83  mm., 
which  is  sufficient;  a  hair  could  get  between  the  pallet  and  tooth,  and 
would  nof  stop  the  watch.  Even  after  allowing  for  imperfectly 
divided  teeth,  we  require  no  greater  freedom,  even  if  the  wheel  is 
larger.  Now  suppose  we  take  a  wheel  with  a  primitive  diameter  of 
8.5  mm.  and  find  the  amount  of  drop;  8.5X3.1416-7- 360X  1.5  =  . 1413 
mm.,  or  .1413 — .0983=.o43  mm.,  more  drop  than  the  smaller  wheel, 
if  we  take  the  same  angle.  This  is  a  waste  of  force.  The  angular 
drop  should,  therefore  be  proportioned  according  to  the  size  of  the 
wheel.  We  wish  it  to  be  understood  that  common  sense  must  always 
be  our  guide.  When  the  horological  student  once  arrives  at  this 
standpoint,  he  can  intelligently  apply  himself  to  his  calling. 

THE    DRAW. 

The  draw  or  draft  angle  was  added  to  the  pallets  in  order  to  draw 
the  fork  back  against  the  bankings  and  the  guard  point  from  the 
roller  whenever  the  safety  action  had  performed  its  function. 

Pallets  with  draw  are  more  difficult  to  unlock  than  those  without  it, 
this  is  in  the  nature  of  a  fault,  but  whenever  there  are  two  faults  we 
we  must  choose  the  less.  The  rate  of  the  watch  will  suffer  less  on 
account  of  the  recoil  introduced  than  it  would  were  the  locking  faces 
arcs  of  circles  struck  from  the  pallet  center,  in  which  case  the  guard 
point  would  often  remain  against  the  roller.  The  draw  should  be  as 
light  as  possible  consistent  with  safety  of  action;  some  writers  allow 
15°  on  the  engaging  and  12°  on  the  disengaging  pallet;  others  again 
allow  12°  on  each,  which  we  deem  sufficient.  The  draw  is  measured 
from  the  locking  edges  M  and  N,  Fig.  200.  The  locking  planes  ivhe^i 
locked ^xc  inclined  12°  from  EB,  and  FB.  In  the  case  of  the  engag- 
ing pallet  it  inclines  toward  the  center  A.  The  draw  is  produced  on 
account  of  MA  being  longer  than  RA,  consequently,  when  power  is 


221  Lever  Escapement. 

applied  to  the  scape  tooth  S,  the  pallet  is  drawn  into  the  wheel.  The 
disengaging  pallet  inclines. in  the  same  direction,  but  away  from  the 
center  A;  the  reason  is  obvious  from  the  former  explanation.  Some 
people  imagine  that  the  greater  the  incline  on  the  locking  edge  of  the 
escape  teeth,  the  stronger  the  draw  would  be.  This  is  not  the  case, 
but  it  is  certainly  necessary  that  the  point  of  the  tooth  alone  should 
touch  the  pallet.  From  this  it  follows  that  the  angle  on  the  teeth 
must  be  greater  than  on  the  pallets;  examine  the  disengaging  pallet 
in  Fig.  200,  as  it  is  from  this  pallet  that  the  inclination  of  the  teeth  must 
be  determined,  as  in  the  case  of  the  engaging  pallet  the  motion  is 
toward  the  line  of  centers  AB,  and  therefore  atuay  from  the  tooth, 
which  partially  explains  why  some  people  advocate  15°  draw  for  this 
pallet.  As  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  disengaging  pallet,  however, 
the  motion  is  also  toward  the  line  of  centers  AB,  and  towards  the 
tooth  as  well,  all  of  which  will  be  seen  by  the  dotted  circles  MM2 

and   NN2,  representing  the 

p  paths  of  the  pallets.     It  will 

,%'^       be  noticed    that  UNF  and 

^    ^  i/y/^V       TNB  are  opposite  and  equal 

''    I      ;  •/  /       angles  of  12°.     For  practical 

j      ;        _y>^  /  reasons,  from  a  manufactur- 

•       !  ^-->3^'  ^"^  '"^  standpoint,  the  angle  on 

:       ;  ,-  //  the  tooth  is  made  just  twice 

\   /\  /  !  the  amount,  namely  24°;  we 

.    y'    }'    •  could  make  it  a  little  less  or 

V'J,^'. /  a  little  more.     If  we  made 

'i^  ■•■(Ije  It  less  than  20°  too  great  a 

Fig.  200.  surface  would  be  in  contact 

with    the    jewel,    involving 

greater  friction  in  unlocking  and  an  inefficient  draw,  but  in  the  case 

of  an  English  lever  with  such  an  arrangement  we  could  do  with  less 

drop,  which  advantage  would  be  too  dearly  bought;  or  if  the  angle  is 

made  over  28°,  the  point  or  locking  edge  of  the  tooth  would  rapidly 

become  worn  in  case  of  a  brass  wheel.    Also  in  an  English  lever 

more  drop  would  be  required. 

THE    LOCK. 

What  we  have  said  in  regard  to  drop  also  applies  to  the  lock, 
which  should  be  as  small  as  possible,  consistent  with  perfect  safety. 
The  greater  the  drop  the  deeper  must  be  the  lock;  iK°  is  the  angle 
generally  allowed  for  the  lock,  but  it  is  obvious  that  in  a  large  escape- 
ment it  can  be  less. 

THE    RUN. 

The  run  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  "  the  slide,"  should  also  be  as 
light  as  possible:  from  X°  to  >^°  is  sufficient.    It  follows,  then,  the 


Lever  Escapement. 


323 


banking  should  be  as  close  together  as  possible,  consistent  with 
requisite  freedom  for  escaping.  Anything  more  than  this  increases 
the  angular  connection  of  the  balance  with  the  escapement,  which 
directly  violates  the  theory  under  which  it  is  constructed;  also,  a 
greater  amount  of  work  will  be  imposed  upon  the  balance  to  meet 
the  increased  unlocking  resistance,  resulting  in  a  poor  motion,  and 
accurate  time  will  be  out  of  the  question.  It  will  be  seen  that  those 
workmen  who  make  a  practice  of  opening  the  banks,  "to  give  the 
escapement  more  freedom,"  simply  jump  from  the  frying  pan  into 
the  fire.     The  bankings  should  be  as  far  removed  from  the  pallet 

center  as  possible,  as 
the  further  away  they 
are  pitched  the  less 
run  we  require,  accord- 
ing to  angular  meas- 
urement. Figure  201 
illustrates  this  fact; 
the  tooth  S  has  just 
dropped  on  the  engag- 
ing pallet,  but  the  fork 
has  not  yet  reached  the  bankings.  At  a  we  have  1°  of  run,  while  if 
placed  at  d  we  would  only  have  }4°  of  run,  but  still  the  same  free- 
dom for  escaping,  and  less  unlocking  resistance. 

The  bankings  should  be  placed  towards  the  acting  end  of  the  fork 
as  illustrated,  as  in  case  the  watch  "rebanks"  there  would  be  more 
strain  on  the  lever  pivots  if  they  were  placed  at  the  other  end  of  the 
fork. 

THE  LIFT. 


Fig.  201. 


The  lift  is  composed  of  the  actual  lift  on  the  teeth  and  pallets  and 
the  lock  and  run.  We  will  suppose  that  from  drop  to  drop  we  allow 
10°;  if  the  lock  is  1}^°  then  the  actual  lift  by  means  of  the  inclined 
planes  on  teeth  and  pallets  will  be  8^°.  We  have  seen  that  a  small 
lifting  angle  is  ad- 
visable, so  that  the 
vibrations  of  the 
balance  will  be  as 
free  as  possible. 
There  are  other 
reasons  as  well. 


Fig.  202. 


Fig.  202  shows  two  inclined  planes;  we  desire  to  lift  the  weight  2  a 
distance  e.qual  to  the  angle  at  which  the  planes  are  inclined;  it  will 
be  seen  at  a  glance  that  we  will  have  less  friction  by  employing  the 
smaller  incline,  whereas  with  the  larger  one  the  motive  power  is  em- 
ployed through  a  greater  distance  on  the  object  to  be  moved.    The 


223 


Lever  Escapement. 


smaller  the  angle  the  more  energetic  will  the  movement  be;  the 
grinding  of  the  angles  and  fit  of  the  pivots,  etc.,  also  increases  in 
importance.  An  actual  lift  of  8^°  satisfies  the  conditions  imposed 
very  well.  We  have  before  seen  that  both  on  account  of  the  unlock- 
ing and  the  lifting  leverage  of  the  pallet  arms,  it  would  be  advisable 
to  make  them  narrow  both  in  the  equidistant  and  circular  escape- 
ment. We  will  now  study  the  question  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
lift,  in  so  far  as  the  wheel  is  concerned. 

It  is  self-evident  that  a  narrow  pallet  requires  a  wide  tooth,  and  a 
wide  pallet  a  narrow  or  thin  tooth  wheel;  in  the  ratchet  wheel  we 
have  a  metal  point  passing  over  a  jeweled  plane.  The  friction  is  at 
its  minimum,  because  there  is  less  adhesion  than  with  the  club  toothy 
but  we  must  emphasize  the  fact  that  we  require  a  greater  angle  in 
proportion  on  the  pallets  in  this  escapement  than  with  the  narrow 
pallets  and  wider  tooth.    This  seems  to  be  a  point  which  many  do 

not  thoroughly  compre- 
hend, and  we  would  advise 
a  close  study  of  Fig.  203, 
which  will  make  it  per- 
fectly clear,  as  we  show 
both  a  wide  and  a  narrow 
pallet.  GH  represents  the 
primitive,  which,  in  this 
figure  is  also  the  real 
diameter  of  the  escape 
wheel.  In  measuring  the 
lifting  angles  for  the  pal- 
lets, our  starting  point  is 
always  from  the  tangents 
AC  and  AD.  The  tangents  are  straight  lines,  but  the  wheel  describes 
the  circle  GH,  therefore  they  must  deviate  from  one  another,  and  the 
closer  to  the  center  A  the  discharging  edge  of  the  engaging  pallet 
reaches,  the  greater  does  this  difference  become;  and  in  the  same 
manner  the  further  the  discharging  edge  of  the  disengaging  pallet  is 
from  the  center  A  the  greater  it  is.  This  shows  that  the  loss  is 
greater  in  the  equidistant  than  in  the  circular  escapement.  After  this 
we  will  designate  this  difference  as  the  "  loss."  In  order  to  illustrate 
it  more  plainly  we  show  the  widest  pallet — the  English — in  equidistant 
form.  This  gives  another  reason  why  the  English  lever  should  only 
be  made  with  circular  pallets,  as  we  have  seen  that  the  wider  the 
pallet  the  greater  the  loss.  The  loss  is  measured  at  the  intersection 
of  the  path  of  the  discharging  edge  00,  with  the  circle  GH,  and  is 
shown  through  AC2,  which  intersects  these  circles  at  that  point.  In 
the  case  of  the  disengaging  pallet,  PP  illustrates  the  path  of  the 
discharging  edge;  the   loss  is  measured  as  in  tb.«  preceding  case 


\1  / 

Fia>  203. 


Lever  Escapement. 


221 


where  GH  is  intersected  as  shown  by  AD2.  It  amounts  to  a  different 
value  on  each  pallet.  Notice  the  loss  between  C  and  C2,  on  the 
engaging,  and  D  and  D2  on  the  disengaging  pallet;  it  is  greater  on 
the  engaging  pallet,  so  much  so  that  it  amounts  to  2°,  which  is  equal  to 


Fig.  204. 

the  entire  lock;  therefore  if  8)4°  of  work  is  to  be  accomplished 
through  this  pallet,  the  lifting  plane  requires  an  angle  of  10;^°  struck 
from  AC. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  lifting  action  of  the  club  tooth  wheel.  This 
is  decidedly  a  complicated  action,  and  requires  some  study  to  compre- 
hend. In  action  with  the  engaging  pallet  the  wheel  moves  uP,  or  in 
the  direction  of  the  motion  of  the  pallets,  but  on  the  disengaging" 
pallet  it  moves  down,  and  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the  pallets,  and 
the  heel  of  the  tooth  moves  with  greater  velocity  than  the  locking 
edge;  also  in  the  case  of  the  engaging  pallet,  the  locking  edge  moves 
with  greater  velocity  than  the  discharging  edge;  in  the  disengaging 
pallet  the  opposite  is  the  case,  as  the  discharging  edge  moves  with 
greater  velocity  than  the  locking.     These  points  involve  factors 


Fig.  205. 

which  must  be  considered,  and  the  drafting  of  a  correct  action  is  of 
paramount  importance;  we  therefore  show  the  lift  as  it  is  accom- 
plished in  four  different  stages  in  a  good  action.  Fig.  204  illustrates 
the  engaging,  and  Fig.  205  the  disengaging  pallet;  by  comparing  the 


335 


Lever  Escapemeut. 


Fig.  206. 


figures  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  lift  takes  place  on  the  point  of  the 
tooth  similar  to  the  English,  until  the  discharging  edge  of  the  pallet 
has  been  passed,  when  the  heel  gradually  comes  into  play  on  the 
engaging,  but  more  quickly  on  the  disengaging  pallet. 

We  will  also  notice  that  during  the  first  part  of  the  lift  the  tooth 
moves  faster  along  the  engaging  lifting  plane  than  on  the  disen- 
gaging; on  pallets  2  and  3  this  difference  is  quite  large;  towards  the 

latter  part  of  the  lift  the  action 
becomes  quicker  on  the  disen- 
gaging pallet  and  slower  on 
the  engaging. 

To  obviate  this  difificulty 
some  fine  watches,  notably 
those  of  A.  Lange  &  Sons, 
have  convex  lifting  planes  on 
the  engaging  and  concave  on 
the  disengaging  pallets;  the 
lifting  planes  on  the  teeth  are 
also  curved.  See  Fig.  206. 
This  is  decidedly  an  ingenious  arrangement,  and  is  in  strict  accord- 
ance with  scientific  investigation.  We  should  see  many  fine  watches 
made  with  such  escapements  if  the  means  for  producing  them  could 
fully  satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  scientific  principles  involved. 

The  distribution  of  the  lift  on  tooth  and  pallet  is  a  very  important 
matter;  the  lifting  angle  on  the  tooth  must  be  /ess  in  pro- 
portion to  its  width  than  it  is  on  the  pallet.  For  the  sake 
of  making  it  perfectly  plain,  we  illustrate  what  should 
not  be  made;  if  we  have  io>^°  for  width  of  tooth  and 
pallet,  and  take  half  of  it  for  a  tooth,  and  the  other  half 
for  the  pallet,  making  each  of  them  5^°  in  width,  and 
supposing  we  have  a  lifting  of  S}^°  to  distribute  between 
them,  by  allowing  4X°  on  each,  the  lift  would  take  place 
as  shown  in  Fig.  207,  which  is  a  very  unfavorable  action. 
The  edge  of  the  engaging  pallet  scrapes  on  the  lifting 
plane  of  the  tooth,  yet  it  is  astonishing  to  find  some  other- 
wise very  fine  watches  being  manufactured  right  along 
which  contain  this  fault;  such  watches  can  be  stopped 
with  the  ruby  pin  in  the  fork  and  the  engaging  pallet  in 
action,  nor  would  they  start  when  run  down  as  soon  as 
the  crown  is  touched,  no  matter  how  well  they  were  finished  and 
fitted. 

The  lever  lengths  of  the  club  tooth  are  variable,  while  with  the 
ratchet  they  are  constant,  which  is  in  its  favor;  in  the  latter  it  would 
always  be  as  SB,  Fig.  208.  This  is  a  shorter  lever  than  QB,  conse- 
quently more  powerful,  although  the  greater  velocity  is  at  Q,  which 


Fig.  207. 


Lever  Escapement.  226 

only  comes  into  action  after  the  inertia  of  wheel  and  pallets  has  been 
overcome,  and  when  the  greatest  momentum  during  contact  is 
reached.  SB  is  the  primitive  radius  of  the  club  tooth  wheel,  but 
both  primitive  and  real  radius  of  the  ratchet  wheel.  The  distance  of 
centers  of  wheel  and  pallet  will  be  alike  in  both  cases;  also  the  lock- 
ings will  be  the  same  distance  apart  on  both  pallets;  therefore,  when 
horologists,  even  if  they  have  worldwide  reputations,  claim  that  the 
club  tooth  has  an  advantage  over  the  ratchet  because  it  begins  the 
lift  with  a  shorter  lever  than  the  latter,  it  does  not  make  it  so.  We 
are  treating  the  subject  from  a  purely  horological  standpoint,  and 
neither  patriotism  or  prejudice  has  anything  to  do  with 
it.  We  wish  to  sift  the  matter  thoroughly  and  arrive 
at  a  just  conception  of  the  merits  and  defects  of  each 
form  of  escapement,  and  show  reasons  for  our  con- 
clusions. 

Anyone  who  has  closely  followed  our  deductions 
must  see  that  in  so  far  as  the  wheel  is  concerned  the 
ratchet  or  English  wheel  has  several  points  in  its  favor. 
Such  a  wheel  is  inseparable  from  a  wide  pallet;  but  we 
have  seen  that  a  narrower  pallet  is  advisable;  also  as 
little  drop  and  lock  as  possible;  clearly,  we  must  effect  a  com- 
promise. In  other  words,  so  far  the  balance  of  our  reasoning  is  in 
favor  of  the  club  tooth  escapement  and  to  effect  an  intelligent  divis- 
ion of  angles  for  tooth,  pallet  and  lift  is  one  of  the  great  questions 
which  confronts  the  intelligent  horologist. 

Anyone  who  has  ever  taken  the  pains  to  draw  pallet  and  tooth  with 
different  angles,  through  every  stage  of  the  lift,  with  both  wide  and 
narrow  pallets  and  teeth,  in  circular  and  equidistant  escapements,  will 
have  received  an  eye-opener.  We  strongly  advise  all  our  readers 
who  are  practical  workmen  to  try  it  after  studying  what  we  have  said. 
We  are  certain  it  will  repay  them. 

THE   CENTER    DISTANCE   OF  WHEEL   AND   PALLETS. 

The  direction  of  pressure  of  the  wheel  teeth  should  be  through  the 
pallet  center  by  drawing  the  tangents  AC  and  AD,  Fig.  197,  to  the 
primitive  circle  GH,  at  the  intersection  of  the  angle  FBE.  This  con- 
dition is  realized  in  the  equidistant  pallet.  In  the  circular  pallet.  Fig. 
198,  this  condition  cannot  exist,  as  in  order  to  lock  on  a  tangent  the 
center  distance  should  be  greater  for  the  engaging  and  less  for  the  dis- 
engaging pallet,  therefore  watchmakers  aim  to  go  between  the  two 
and  plant  them  as  before  specified  at  A. 

When  planted  on  the  tangents  the  unlocking  resistance  will  be  less 
and  the  impulse  transmitted  under  favorable  conditions,  especially  so 
in  the  circular,  as  the  direction  of  pressure  coincides  (close  to  the 
center  of  the  lift)  with  the  law  of  the  parallelogram  of  forces. 


227  Lever  Escapement. 

It  is  impossible  to  plant  pallets  on  the  tangents  in  very  small 
escapements,  as  there  would  not  be  enough  room  for  a  pallet  arbor  of 
proper  strength,  nor  will  they  be  found  planted  on  the  tangents  in 
the  medium  size  escapement  with  a  long  pallet  arbor,  nor  in  such  a 
one  with  a  very  wide  tooth  (see  Fig.  199)  as  the  heel  would  come  so 
close  to  the  center  A,  that  the  solidity  of  pallets  and  arbor  would  sufifer. 
We  will  give  an  actual  example.  For  a  medium  sized  escape  wheel 
with  a  primitive  diameter  of  7.5  mm.,  the  center  distance  AB  is  4.33 
mm.  By  using  3°  of  a  lifting  angle  on  the  teeth,  the  distance  from 
the  heel  of  the  tooth  to  the  pallet  center  will  be  .4691  mm.;  by  allow- 
ing .1  mm.  between  wheel  and  pallet  and  .15  mm.  for  stock  on  the 
pallets  we  find  we  will  have  a  pallet  arbor  as  follows:  .4691 — (.1  +  .I5)X 
2=.4382  mm.     It  would  not  be  practicable  to  make  anything  smaller. 

It  behooves  us  now  to  see  that  while  a  narrow  pallet  is  advisable  a 
very  wide  tooth  is  not;  yet  these  two  are  inseparable.  Here  is 
another  case  for  a  compromise,  as,  unquestionably  the  pallets  ought 
to  be  planted  on  the  tangents.  There  is  no  difficulty  about  it  in  the 
English  lever,  and  we  have  shown  in  our  example  that  a  judiciously 
planned  club  tooth  escapement  of  medium  size  can  be  made  with  the 
center  distance  properly  planted. 

When  considering  the  center  distance  we  must  of  necessity  con- 
sider the  widths  of  teeth  and  pallets  and  their  lifting  angles.  We 
are  now  at  a  point  in  which  no  watchmaker  of  intelligence  would 
indicate  one  certain  division  for  these  parts  and  claim  it  to  be  "  the 
best."  It  is  always  those  who  do  not  thoroughly  understand  a  sub- 
ject who  are  the  first  to  make  such  claims.  We  will,  however,  give 
our  opinion  within  certain  limits.  The  angle  to  be  divided  for  tooth 
and  pallet  is  io>^°.  Let  us  divide  it  by  2,  which  would  be  the  most 
natural  thing  to  do,  and  examine  the  problem.  We  will  have  5^° 
each  for  width  of  tooth  and  pallet.  We  rrncst  have  a  smaller  lifting 
angle  on  the  tooth  than  on  the  pallet,  but  the  wider  the  tooth  the 
greater  should  its  lifting  angle  be.  It  would  not  be  mechanical  to 
make  the  tooth  wide  and  the  lifting  angle  small,  as  the  lifting  plane 
on  the  pallets  would  be  too  steep  on  account  of  being  narrow.  A 
lifting  angle  on  the  tooth  which  would  be  exactly  suitable  for  a  given 
circular,  would  be  too  great  for  a  given  equidistant  pallet.  It  follows, 
therefore,  taking  5^°  as  a  width  for  the  tooth,  that  while  we  could 
employ  it  in  a  fair  sized  escapement  with  equidistant  pallets,  we 
could  not  do  so  with  circular  pallets  and  still  have  the  latter  pitched 
on  the  tangents.  We  see  the  majority  of  escapements  made  with 
narrower  teeth  than  pallets,  and  for  a  very  good  reason. 

In  the  example  previously  given,  the  3°  lift  on  the  tooth  is  well 
adapted  for  a  width  of  4K°,  which  would  require  a  pallet  6°  in  width. 
The  tooth,  therefore,  would  be  %  the  width  of  pallets,  which  is  very 
good  indeed. 


Lever  Escapement.  228 

From  what  we  have  said  it  follows  that  a  large  number  of  pallets 
are  not  planted  on  the  tangents  at  all.  We  have  never  noticed  this 
question  in  print  before.  Writers  generally  seem  to,  in  fact  do, 
assume  that  no  matter  how  large  or  small  the  escapement  may  be,  or 
how  the  pallets  and  teeth  are  divided  for  width  and  lifting  angle  no 
difficulty  will  be  found  in  locating  the  pallets  on  the  tangents.  Theo- 
retically there  is  no  difficulty,  but  in  practice  we  find  there  is. 

EQUIDISTANT  VS.  CIRCULAR. 

At  this  stage  we  are  able  to  weigh  the  circular  against  the  equi- 
distant pallet.  In  the  beginning  we  had  to  explain  the  differ- 
ence between  them,  so  the  reader  could  follow  our  discussion,  and 
not  until  now,  are  we  able  to  sum  up  our  conclusions. 

The  reader  will  have  noticed  that  for  such  an  important  action  as 
the  lift,  which  supplies  power  to  the  balance,  the  circular  pallet  is 
favored  from  every  point  of  view.  This  is  a  very  strong  point  in  its 
favor.  On  the  other  hand,  the  unlocking  resistance  being  less,  and  as 
nearly  alike  as  possible  on  both  pallets  in  the  equidistant,  it  is  a  ques- 
tion if  the  total  vibration  of  the  balance  will  be  greater  with  the  one 
than  the  other,  although  it  will  receive  the  impulse  under  better 
conditions  from  the  circular  pallet;  but  it  expends  more  force  in 
unlocking  it.  Escapement  friction  plays  an  important  role  in  the 
position  and  isochronal  adjustments;  the  greater  the  friction  encoun- 
tered the  slower  the  vibration  of  the  balance.  The  friction  should  be 
constant.  In  unlocking,  the  equidistant  comes  nearer  to  fulfilling 
this  condition,  while  during  the  lift  it  is  more  nearly  so  in  the  circular. 
The  friction  in  unlocking,  from  a  timing  standpoint,  overshadows 
that  of  the  impulse,  and  the  tooth  can  be  a  little  wider  in  the  equi- 
distant than  the  circular  escapement  with  the  pallet  properly  planted. 
Therefore  for  the  finest  watches  the  equidistant  escapement  is  well 
adapted,  but  for  anything  less  than  that  the  circular  should  be  our 
choice. 

THE   FORK   AND   ROLLER   ACTION. 

While  the  lifting  action  of  the  lever  escapement  corresponds  to 
that  of  the  cylinder,  the  fork  and  roller  action  corresponds  to  the 
impulse  action  in  the  chronometer  and  duplex  escapements. 

Our  experience  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  action  now  under  con- 
sideration is  but  imperfectly  understood  by  many  workmen.  It  is  a 
complicated  action,  and  when  out  of  order  is  the  cause  of  many 
annoying  stoppages,  often  characterized  by  the  watch  starting  when 
taken  from  the  pocket. 

The  action  is  very  important,  and  is  generally  divided  into  impulse 
and  safety  action,  although  we  think  we  ought  to  divide  it  into  three, 
namely,  by  adding  that  of  the  unlocking  action.    We  will  first  of  all 


229 


Lever  Escapement. 


consider  the  impulse  and  unlocking  actions,  because  we  cannot  intel- 
ligently consider  the  one  without  the  other,  as  the  ruby  pin  and  the 
slot  in  the  fork  are  utilized  in  each.  The  ruby  pin,  or  strictly  speak- 
ing, the  "  impulse  radius,"  is  a  lever  arm,  whose  length  is  measured 
from  the  center  of  the  balance  staff  to  the  face  of  the  ruby  pin,  and 
is  used,  firstly,  as  a  power  or  transmitting  lever  on  the  acting  or 
geometrical  length  of  the  fork  (/.  <?.,  from  the  pallet  center  to  the 
beginning  of  the  horn),  and  which  at  the  moment  is  a  resistance  lever, 
to  be  utilized  in  unlocking  the  pallets.  After  the  pallets  are  unlocked 
the  conditions  are  reversed,  and  we  now  find  the  lever  fork,  through 
the  pallets,  transmitting  power  to  the  balance  by  means  of  the 
impulse  radius.  In  the  first  part  of  the  action  we  have  a  short  lever 
engaging  a  longer  one,  which  is  an  advantage.  See  Fig.  209,  where 
we  have  purposely  somewhat  exaggerated  the  con- 
ditions. A'  X  represents  the  impulse  radius  at  pres- 
ent under  discussion,  and  AW  the  acting  length  of  the 
fork.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  shorter  the  impulse 
radius,  or  in  other  words,  the  closer  the  ruby  pin  is 
to  the  balance  staff  and  the  longer  the  fork,  the  easier 
will  the  unlocking  of  the  pallets  be  performed,  but 
this  entails  a  great  impulse  angle,  for  the  law  appli- 
cable to  the  case  is,  that  the  angles  are  in  the  inverse 
ratio  to  the  radii.  In  other  words,  the  shorter  the 
radius,  the  greater  is  the  angle,  and  the  smaller  the 
angle  the  greater  is  the  radius.  We  know,  though, 
that  we  must  have  as  small  an  impulse  angle  as  pos- 
sible in  order  that  the  balance  should  be  highly  de- 
tached. Here  is  one  point  in  favor  of  a  short  impulse 
radius,  and  one  against  it.  Now,  let  us  turn  to  the 
impulse  action.  Here  we  have  the  long  lever,  AW, 
acting  on  a  short  one,  A'X,  which  is  a  disadvantage. 
Here,  then,  we  ought  to  try  and  have  a  short  lever 
acting  on  a  long  one,  which  would  point  to  a  short  fork  and  a  great 
impulse  radius.  Suppose  AP,  Fig.  209,  is  the  length  of  fork,  and 
A'P  is  the  impulse  radius;  here,  then,  we  favor  the  impulse,  and  it  is 
directly  in  accordance  with  the  theory  of  the  free  vibration  of  the 
balance,  for,  as  before  stated,  the  longer  the  radius  the  smaller  the 
angle.  The  action  at  P  is  also  closer  to  the  line  of  centers  than  it  is 
at  W,  which  is  another  advantage. 

We  will  notice  that  by  employing  a  large  impulse  angle,  and  con- 
sequently a  short  radius,  the  intersection  m  of  the  two  circles  zVand 
cc  is  very  safe,  whereas,  with  the  conditions  reversed  in  favor  of  the 
impulse  action,  the  intersection  at  k  is  more  delicate.  We  have  now 
seen  enough  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  we  favor  one  action  at 
the  expense  of  another. 


^Fig.  209. 


Lever  Escapement. 


230 


By  having  a  lifting  angle  on  pallet  and  tooth  of  8>^°,  a  locking 
angle  of  i>^°,  and  a  run  of  >^°,  we  will  have  an  angular  movement 
of  the  fork  of  S'A  +  i}^  +  %  =  io%°. 

Writers  generally  only  consider  the  movement  of  the  fork  from 
drop  to  drop  on  the  pallets,  but  we  will  be  thoroughly  practical  in  the 
matter.  With  a  total  motion  of  the  fork  of  io>^°  (JAW,  Fig.  210),  one- 
half  of  $X°  will  be  performed  on  each  side  of  the  line  of  centers- 
We  are  at  liberty  to  choose  any  impulse  angle  which  we  may  prefer; 
3  to  I  is  a  good  proportion  for  an  ordinary  well-made  watch.  By 
employing  it  the  angle  XA'Y  would  be  equal  to  3ijS^°.  The  radius 
A'X,  Fig,  211,  is  also  of  the  same  proportion,  but  the  angle  AA'X  is 
greater  because  the  fork  angle  WAA'  is  greater  than  the  same  angle 
in  Fig.  210.    We  will  notice  that  the  intersection  k  is  much  smaller  in 

Fig.  210  than  in  Fig.  211.  The 
action  in  the  latter  begins 
much  further  from  the  line  of 
centers  than  in  the  former  and 
outlines  an  action  which  should 
not  be  made. 

To  come  back  to  the  impulse 
angle,  some  might  use  a  pro- 
portion of  3.5, 4  or  even  5  to  i, 
while  others  for  the  finest  of 
watches  would  only  use  2.75  to 
I.  By  having  a  total  vibration 
of  the  balance  of  i  J4  turns, 
which  is  equal  to  540°,  a  fork 
angle  of  10°  and  a  proportion 
of  2.75  for  the  impulse  angle 
which  would  be  equal  to 
10X2.75  =  27.5°.    The/r<?^  vi- 


Fig.  211. 


bration  of  the  balance,  or  as  this  is  called,  "the  supplemental  arc," 
is  equal  to  540°— 27.5°  =  5 12.5°,  while  with  a  proportion  of  5  to  i, 
making  an  impulse  angle  of  50°,  it  would  be  equal  to  490°.  To 
sum  up,  the  finer  the  watch  the  lower  the  proportion,  the  closer  the 
action  to  the  line  of  centers,  the  smaller  the  friction.  On  account  of 
leverage  the  more  difficult  the  unlocking,  but  the  more  energetic  the 
impulse  when  it  does  occur.  The  velocity  of  the  ruljf'  pin  at  P,  Fig. 
209,  is  much  greater  than  at  W,  consequently  it  will  not  be  overtaken 
as  soon  by  the  fork  as  at  W.  The  velocity  of  the  fork  at  the  latter 
point  is  greater  than  at  P;  the  intersection  of  //and  cc  is  also  not  as 
great;  therefore  the  lower  the  proportion  the  finer  and  more  exact 
must  the  workmanship  be. 

We  will  notice  that  the  unlocking  action  has  been  overruled  by  the 
impulse.    The  only  point  so  far  in  which  the  former  has  been  favored 


281  Lever  Escapement. 

is  in  the  diminished  action  before  the  line  of  centers,  as  previously 
pointed  out  at  P,  Fig.  209. 

We  will  now  consider  the  width  of  the  ruby  pin,  and  to  get  a  good 
insight  into  the  question,  we  will  study  Fig.  212.  A  is  the  pallet  cen- 
ter, A'  the  balance  center,  the  line  AA'  being  the  line  of  centers;  the 
angle  WAA'  equals  half  the  total  motion  of  the  fork,  the  other  half, 
of  course,  takes  place  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  center  line.  WA 
is  the  center  of  the  fork  when  it  rests  against  the  bank.  The  angle 
AA'X  represents  half  the  impulse  angle;  the  other  half,  the  same  as 
with  the  fork,  is  struck  on  the  other  side  of  the  center  line.  At  the 
point  of  intersection  of  these  angles  we  will  draw  cc  from  the  pallet 
center  A,  which  equals  the  acting  length  of  the  fork,  and  from  the 
balance  center  we  will  draw  ii,  which  equal  the  theoretical  impulse 
radius;  some  writers  use  it  as  the  real  radius.  The  wider  the  ruby 
pin  the  greater  will  the  latter  be,  which  we  will  explain  presently. 

The  ruby  pin  in  entering  the  fork  must  have  a  certain  amount  of 
freedom  for  action,  from  i  to  i%°.  Should  the  watch  receive  a  jar  at 
the  moment  the  guard  point  enters  the  crescent  or  passing  hollow  in 
the  roller,  the  fork  would  fly  against  the  ruby  pin.  It  is  important 
that  the  angular  freedom  between  the  fork  and  ruby  pin  at  the 
moment  it  enters  into  the  slot  be  less  than  the  total  locking  angle  on 
the  pallets.  If  we  employ  a  locking  angle  of  \%,°  and  >^°  run,  we 
would  have  a  total  lock  on  the  pallet  of  2°.  By  allowing  i  J^°  of  free- 
dom for  the  ruby  pin  the  moment  the  guard  point  enters  the  cres- 
cent, in  case  the  fork  should  strike  the  face  of  the  ruby  pin,  the  pal- 
lets will  still  be  locked  }i°  and  the  fork  drawn  back  against  the  bank- 
ings through  the  draft  angle. 

We  will  see  what  this  shake  amounts  to  for  a  given  acting  length  of 
fork,  which  describes  an  arc  of  a  circle,  therefore  the  acting  length  is 
only  the  radius  of  that  circle  and  must  be  multiplied  by  two  in  order 
to  get  the  diameter.  The  acting  length  of  fork  =4.5  mm.,  what  is  the 
amount  of  shake  when  the  ruby  pin  passes  the  acting  corner?  4.5  X 
2X3.i4i6-7-36o°  =  .o785Xi.25  =  .0992  mm.  The  shake  of  the  ruby  pin 
in  the  slot  of  the  fork  must  be  as  slight  as  possible,  consistent  with 
perfect  freedom  of  action.  It  varies  from  %°  to  >^°,  according  to 
length  of  fork  and  shape  of  ruby  pin.  A  square  ruby  pin  requires 
more  shake  than  any  other  kind;  it  enters  the  fork  and  receives  the 
impulse  in  a  diagonal  direction  on  the  jewel,  in  which  position  it  is 
illustrated  at  Z,  Fig.  215.  This  ruby  pin  acts  on  a  knife  edge,  but  for 
all  that  the  engaging  friction  during  the  unlocking  action  is  con- 
siderable. 

Our  reasoning  tells  us  it  matters  not  if  a  ruby  pin  be  wide  or  nar- 
row, it  must  have  the  same  freedom  in  passing  the  acting  edge  of  the 
fork,  therefore,  to  have  the  impulse  radius  on  the  point  of  intersection 
of  AX  with  AW,  Fig.  212,  we  would  require  a  very  narrow  ruby  pm. 


Lever  Escapement. 


m 


With  1°  of  freedom  at  the  edge,  and  }i°  in  the  slot,  we  could  only 
have  a  ruby  pin  of  a  width  of  J}4°.  Applying  it  to  the  preceding 
example  it  would  only  have  an  actual  width  of  .0785X1.5  =  .!  178  mm., 
or  the^size  of  an  ordinary  balance  pivot.  At  n,  Fig.  212,  we  illustrate 
such  a  ruby  pin;  the  theoretical  and  real  impulse  radius  coincide 
with  one  another.  The  intersection  of  the  circle  it  and  cc  is  very 
slight,  while  the  friction  in  unlocking  begins  with  1°  of  half  the  total 
movement  of  the  fork  from  the  line  of  centers;  to  illustrate,  if  the 
angular  motion  is  11°  the  ruby  pin  under  discussion  will  begin  action 
4 >^°  before  the  line  of  centers,  being  an  engaging,  or  "  uphill  "  fric- 
tion of  considerable  magnitude. 

The  intersection  with  the  fork  is  also  much  less  than  with  the  wider 
ruby   pin,  making  the  impulse  action  very  delicate.    On  the  other 


Fig.  212. 


Fig.  213. 


Fig  214.       Fig.  215. 


hand  the  widest  ruby  pin  for  which  there  is  any  occasion  is  one 
beginning  the  unlocking  action  on  the  line  of  centers.  Fig.  212;  this 
entails  a  width  of  slot  equal  to  the  angular  motion  of  the  fork.  We 
see  here  the  advantage  of  a  wide  ruby  pin  over  a  narrow  one  in  the 
unlocking  action.  Let  us  now  examine  the  question  from  the  stand- 
point of  impulse  action. 

Fig.  213  illustrates  the  moment  the  impulse  is  transmitted;  the  fork 
has  been  moved  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  by  the  ruby  pin;  the 
escapement  has  been  unlocked  and  the  opposite  side  of  the  slot  has 
just  struck  the  ruby  pin.  The  exact  position  in  which  the  impulse  is 
transmitted  varies  with  the  locking  angle,  the  width  of  ruby  pin,  its 
shake  in  the  slot,  the  length  of  fork,  its  weight,  and  the  velocity  of 
the  ruby  pin,  which  is  determined  by  the  vibrations  of  the  balance 
and  the  impulse  radius. 


233  Lever  Escapement. 

In  an  escapement  with  a  total  lock  of  i^°  and  i^  of  shake  in  the 
slot,  theoretically,  the  impulse  would  be  transmitted  2°  from  the 
bankings.  The  narrow  ruby  pin  n  receives  the  impulse  on  the  line  v, 
which  is  closer  to  the  line  of  centers  than  the  line  u,  on  which 
the  large  ruby  pin  receives  the  impulse.  Here  then  we  have 
an  advantage  of  the  narrow  ruby  pin  over  a  wide  one;  with  a  wider 
ruby  pin  the  balance  is  also  more  liable  to  rebank  when  it  takes  a 
long  vibration.  Also  on  account  of  the  greater  angle  at  which  the 
ruby  pin  stands  to  the  slot  when  the  impulse  takes  place,  the  drop  of 
the  fork  against  the  jewel  will  amount  to  more  than  its  shake  in  the 
slot  (which  is  measured  when  standing  on  the  line  of  centers).  On 
this  account  some  watches  have  slots  dovetailed  in  form,  being  wider 
at  the  bottom,  others  have  ruby  pins  of  this  form.  They  require  very 
exact  execution;  we  think  we  can  do  without  them  by  judiciously 
selecting  a  width  of  ruby  pin  between  the  two  extremes.  We  would 
choose  a  ruby  pin  of  a  width  equal  to  half  the  angular  motion  of  the 
fork.  There  is  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  fork  and  roller  which 
aims  to,  and  partially  does,  overcome  the  difficulty  of  choosing 
between  a  wide  and  narrow  ruby  pin;  it  is  known  as  the  Savage  pin 
roller  escapement.    We  intend  to  describe  it  later. 

If  the  face  of  the  ruby  pin  were  planted  on  the  theoretical  impulse 
radius  «,  Fig.  214,  the  impulse  would  end  in  a  butting  action  as  shown; 
hence  the  great  importance  of  -distinguishing  between  the  theoretical 
and  real  impulse  radius  and  establishing  a  reliable  data  from  which 
to  work.  We  feel  that  these  actions  have  never  been  properly  and 
thoroughly  treated  in  simple  language;  we  have  tried  to  make  them 
plain  so  that  anyone  can  comprehend  them  with  a  little  study. 

Three  good  forms  of  ruby  pins  are  the  triangular,  the  oval  and  the 
flat  faced;  for  ordinary  work  the  latter  is  as  good  as  any,  but  for  fine 
work  the  triangular  pin  with  the  corners  slightly  rounded  ofiE  is 
preferable. 

English  watches  are  met  with  having  a  cylindrical  or  round  ruby 
pin.  Such  a  pin  should  never  be  put  into  a  watch.  The  law  of 
the  parallelogram  of  forces  is  completely  ignored  by  using  such  a 
pin;  the  friction  during  the  unlocking  and  impulse  action  is  too 
severe,  as  it  is,  without  the  addition  of  so  unmechanical  an  arrange- 
ment. Fig.  216  illustrates  the  action  of  a  round  ruby  pin;  it  is  the 
path  of  the  ruby  pin;  cc  that  of  the  acting  length  of  the  fork.  It  is 
shown  at  the  moment  the  impulse  is  transmitted.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  impact  takes  place  below  the  center  of  the  ruby  pin,  whereas  it 
should  take  place  at  the  center,  as  the  motion  of  the  fork  is  upwards 
and  that  of  the  ruby  pin  dow7iwards  until  the  line  of  the  centers  has 
been  reached.  The  same  rule  applies  to  the  flat-faced  pin,  and  it  is 
important  that  the  right  quantity  be  ground  off.  We  find  that  ?  is 
approximately  the  amount  which  should  be  ground  away.     Fig.  217 


Lever  Escapement. 


234 


illustrates  the  fork  standing  against  the  bank.  The  ruby  pin  touches 
the  side  of  the  slot  but  has  not  as  yet  begun  to  act;  rz  is  the  real 
impulse  circle  for  which  we  allow  iX°  of  freedom  at  the  acting  edge 
of  the  fork;  the  face  of  the  ruby  pin  is  therefore  on  this  line.  The 
next  thing  to  do  is  to  find  the  center  of  the  pin.  From  the  side  n  of 
the  slot  we  construct  the  right  angle  out;  from  n  we  transmit  %  the 


® 


Fig.  216. 


Fig.  218. 


Fig.  217. 


width  of  the  pin,  and  plant  the  center  x  on  the  line  «  /.  We  can 
have  the  center  of  the  pin  slightly  below  this  line,  but  in  no  case 
above  it;  but  if  we  put  it  below,  the  pin  will  be  thinner  and  therefore 
more  easily  broken. 

THE   SAFETY    ACTION. 

Although  this  action  is  separate  from  tbe  impulse  and  unlocking 
actions,  it  is  still  very  closely  connected  with  them,  much  more  so  in 
the  single  than  in  the  double  roller  escapement.  If  we  were  to  place 
the  ruby  pin  at  X,  Fig.  209,  we  could  have  a  much  smaller  roller  than 
by  placing  it  at  P.  With  the  small  roller  the  safety  action  is  more 
secure,  as  the  intersection  at  m  is  greater  than  at  i.  It  is  not  as  lia- 
ble to  "butt"  and  the  friction  is  less  when  the  guard  point  is  thrown 
against  the  small  roller.  Suppose  we  take  two  rollers,  one  with  a 
diameter  of  2.5  mm.,  tho  other  just  twice  this  amount,  or  5  mm.  By 
having  the  guard  radius  and  pressure  the  same  in  each  case,  if  the 
guard  point  touched  the  larger  roller  it  would  not  only  have  twice,  but 
four  times  more  effect  than  on  the  smaller  one.  We  will  notice  that 
the  smaller  the  impulse  angle  the  larger  the  roller,  because  the  ruby 
pin  is  necessarily  placed  farther  from  the  center.  The  position  of  the 
ruby  pin  should,  therefore,  govern  the  size  of  the  roller,  which  should 
be  as  small  as  possible.  There  should  only  be  enough  metal  left 
between  the  circumference  of  the  roller  and  the  face  of  the  jewel  to 


dSS  Lever  Escapement. 

allow  for  a  crescent  or  passing  hollow  of  sufficient  depth  and  an  effi- 
cient setting  for  the  jewel.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  securing  the 
correct  impulse  radius  and  therefore  angle,  when  replacing  the  ruby 
pin,  and  having  it  set  securely  and  mechanically  in  the  roller,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  pin  and  the  hole  in  the  roller  be  of  the  same  form 
and  a  good  fit.  Fig.  218  illustrates  the  difference  in  size  of  rollers.  In 
the  smaller  one  the  conditions  imposed  are  satisfied,  while  in  the 
larger  one  they  are  not.  In  the  single  roller  the  safety  action  is  at  the 
mercy  of  the  impulse  and  pallet  angles.  We  have  noticed  that  in 
order  to  favor  the  impulse  we  require  a  large  roller,  and  for  the 
safety  action  a  small  one,  therefore  escapements  made  on  fine  princi- 
ples are  supplied  with  two  rollers,  one  for  each  action. 

It  may  be  well  to  say  that  in  our  opinion  a  proportion  between  the 
fork  and  impulse  angles  in  10°  pallets  of  3  or  3>^  to  i,  depending 
upon  the  size  of  the  escapement,  is  the  lowest  which  should  be  made 
in  single  roller.  We  have  seen  them  in  proportions  of  2  to  i  in  single 
roller — a  scientific  principle  foolishly  applied — resulting  in  an  action 
entirely  unsatisfactory. 

When  the  guard  point  is  pressed  against  the  roller  the  escape  tooth 
must  still  rest  on  the  locking  face  of  the  pallet;  if  the  total  lock  is  2°, 
by  allowing  iX°  freedom  for  the  guard  point  between  the  bank  and 
the  roller  the  escapement  will  still  be  locked  %°.  How  much  this 
shake  actually  amounts  to  depends  upon  the  guard  radius.  Suppose 
this  to  be  4  mm..  then  the  freedom  would  equal  4X2X3. i4i6-i-36oX 
i.2S=.o873  mm, 

THE   CRESCENT 

The  crescent  in  the  roller  must  be  large  and  deep  enough  so  it  will 
be  impossible  for  the  guard  point  to  touch  in  or  on  the  corners  of  it; 
at  the  same  time  it  must  not  be  too  large,  as  it  would  necessitate  a 
longer  horn  on  the  fork  than  is  necessary. 

Fig.  219  shows  the  slot  «  of  the  fork  standing  at  the  bank.  The 
ruby  pin  o  touches  it,  but  has  not  as  yet  acted  on  it;  s  s  illustrates  a 
single  roller,  while  S2  illustrates  the  safety  roller  for  a  double  roller 
escapement.  In  order  to  find  the  dimensions  of  the  crescent  in  the 
single  roller  we  must  proceed  as  follows:  WA  is  in  the  center  of  the 
fork  when  it  rests  against  the  bank,  and  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  sides 
of  the  fork  angle,  and  is  drawn  from  the  pallet  center;  V  A  W  is  an 
angle  of  iX°.  which  equals  the  freedom  between  the  guard  point 
and  the  roller;  g  g  represents  the  path  of  the  guard  pin  u  for  the 
single  roller,  and  is  drawn  at  the  intersection  of  VA  with  the  roller. 
A'  A2  is  a  line  drawn  from  the  balance  center  through  that  of  the 
ruby  pin,  and  therefore  also  passes  through  the  center  of  the  cres- 
cent. By  planting  a  compass  on  this  line,  where  it  cuts  the  periphery 
of  the  roller,  and  locating  the  point  of  intersection  of  \^A  with  the 


Lever  Escapement. 


2^ 


roller,  will  give  us  one-half  the  crescent,  the  remaining  half  being 
transferred  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  line  A'  A2.  We  will  notice  that 
the  guard  point  has  entered  the  crescent  i}4°  before  the  fork  begins 
to  move. 

The  angle  of  opening  for  the  crescent  in  the  double  roller  escape- 
ment is  greater  than  in  the  single,  because  it  is  placed  closer  to  the 
balance  center,  and  the  guard  point  or  dart  further  from  the  pallet  cen. 
ter,  causing  a  greater  intersection;  also  the 
velocity  of  the  guard  point  has  increased, 
while  that  of  the  safety  roller  has  decreased. 
Fig.  21Q,  at  //,  shows  the  path  of  the  dart  //, 
which  also  has  i}{°  freedom  between  bank 
and  roller.  From  the  balance  center  we 
draw  A'  d  touching  the  center  or  point  of 
the  dart;  from  this  point  we  construct  at  5° 
angle  6  A' d.  This  is  to  insure  sufficient 
freedom  for  the  dart  when  entering  the 
crescent.  We  plant  a  compass  on  the  point 
of  intersection  of  A'  A2  with  the  safety 
roller,  S2,  and  locating  the  point  where  A'd 
intersects  it,  have  found  one  half  the  opening  for  the  crescent,  the 
remaining  half  being  constructed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  line 
A'  A2. 

THE  HORN. 


^< 


The  horn  on  the  fork  belongs  to  the  safety  action;  more  horn  is 
required  with  the  double  than  with  the  single  roller,  on  account  of  the 
greater  angle  of  opening  for  the  crescent. 
The  horn  should  be  of  such  a  length  that 
when  the  crescent  has  passed  the  guard 
point,  the  end  of  the  horn  should  point  to 
at  least  the  center  of  the  ruby  pin. 
The  dotted  circle,  s  s,  Fig.  220,  represents 
a  single  roller.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  corner  of  the  crescent  has  passed  the 
guard  pin  «  by  a  considerable  angle,  and 
although  this  is  so,  in  case  of  an  accident 
the  acting  edge  of  the  fork  would  come  in 
contact  with  the  ruby  pin:  this  proves  that 
a  well  made  single  roller  escapement 
really  requires  but  little  horn,  only  enough 
to  ensure  the  safe  entry  of  the  ruby  pin 

in  case  the  guard  point  at  that  moment  be  thrown  against  the  roller. 
We  will  now  examine  the  question  from  the  standpoint  of  the  double 
roller;  S2,  Fig.  220,  is  the  safety  roller;  the  corner  of  the  crescent  has 


Fig.  220. 


287 


Lever  Escapement. 


safely  passed  the  dart  h  ;  the  centers  of  the  ruby  pint?  and  of  the 
crescent  being  on  the  line  A'  A2,  we  plant  the  compass  on  the  pallet 
center  and  the  center  of  the  face  of  the  ruby  pin  and  draw  kk, -which 
will  be  the  path  described  by  the  horn.  The  end  of  the  horn  is 
therefore  planted  upon  it  from  ij^'^to  iji^  from  the  ruby  pin;  this 
freedom  at  the  end  of  the  horn  is  therefore  from  %°  to  ^°  more  than 
we  allow  for  the  guard  point;  it  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  escape- 
ment and  locking  angles  which  we  would  choose.  It  must  in  any 
case  be  less  than  the  lock  on  the  pallets,  so  that  the  fork  will  be 
drawn  back  against  the  bank  in  case  the  horn  be  thrown  against  the 
ruby  pin. 


Fig.  221. 


Fig.  222. 


When  treating  on  the  width  of  the  ruby  pin,  we  mentioned  the  Sav- 
age pin  roller  escapement,  which  we  illustrate  in  Figs.  221  and  222. 
This  ingenious  arrangement  was  designed  with  the  view  of  combin- 
ing the  advantages  of  both  wide  and  narrow  pins  and  at  the  same 
time  without  any  of  their  disadvantages. 

In  Fig.  221  we  show  the  unlocking  pins  te  beginning  their  action  on 
the  line  of  centers — the  best  possible  point — in  unlocking  the  escape- 
ment. These  pins  were  made  of  gold  in  all  which  we  examined,  al- 
though it  is  recorded  that  wide  ruby  pins  and  ruby  rollers  have  been 
used  in  this  escapement,  which  would  be  preferable. 

The  functions  of  the  two  pins  in  the  roller  are  simply  to  unlock  the 
escapement;  the  impulse  is  not  transmitted  to  them  as  is  the  case  in 
the  ordinary  fork  and  roller  action.    In  this  action  the  guard  pin  i 


Lever  Escapement.  238 

also  acts  as  the  impulse  pin.  We  will  notice  that  the  passing  hollow 
in  this  roller  is  a  rectangular  slot,  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  fork. 
When  the  escapement  is  being  unlocked  the  guard  pin  i  enters  the 
hollow  and  when  the  escape  tooth  comes  in  contact  with  the  lifting 
plane  of  the  pallet  the  pin  i,  Fig.  222,  transmits  the  impulse  to  the 
roller. 

The  impulse  is  transmitted  closer  to  the  line  of  centers  than  could 
be  done  with  any  ruby  pin.  If  the  pin  i  were  wider  the  impulse 
would  be  transmitted  still  closer  to  the  line  of  centers,  but  the  intersec- 
tion of  it  with  the  roller  would  be  less.  It  is  very  delicate  as  it  is,  there- 
fore from  a  practical  standpoint  it  ought  to  be  made  thin  but  consist- 
ent with  solidity.  If  the  pin  is  anyway  large,  it  should  be  flattened 
on  the  sides,  otherwise  the  friction  would  be  similar  to  that  of  the 
round  ruby  pin.  It  would  also  be  preferable  (on  account  of  the  pin  i 
being  very  easily  bent)  to  make  the  impulse  piece  narrow  but  of  such 
a  length  that  it  could  be  screwed  to  the  fork,  the  same  as  the  dart  in 
the  double  roller.  The  impulse  radius  is  also  the  radius  of  the  roller, 
because  the  impulse  is  transmitted  to  the  roller  itself;  for  this  reason 
the  latter  is  smaller  in  this  action  than  in  the  ordinary  one  having  the 
same  angles;  also  a  shorter  lever  is  in  contact  with  a  longer  one  in 
the  unlocking  than  in  ordinary  action  of  the  same  angles;  but  for  all 
this  the  pins  u  u  should  be  pitched  close  to  the  edge  of  the  roller,  as 
the  angular  connection  of  the  balance  with  the  escapement  would  be 
increased  during  the  unlocking  action.  This  escapement  being  very 
delicate  requires  a  12°  pallet  angle  and  a  proportion  between  impulse 
and  pallet  angles  of  not  less  than  3  to  i,  which  would  mean  an  im- 
pulse angle  of  36°;  this  together  with  the  first  rate  workmanship 
required  are  two  of  the  reasons  why  this  action  is  not  often  met  with. 
George  Savage,  of  London,  England,  invented  this  action. 

The  correct  delineation  of  the  lever  escapement  is  a  very  important 
matter.  We  illustrate  one  which  is  so  delineated  that  it  can  be  prac- 
tically produced.  We  have  not  noticed  a  draft  of  the  lever  escape- 
ment, especially  with  equidistant  pallets  and  club  teeth,  which  would 
act  correctly  in  a  watch. 

A  theorem  is  a  proposition  to  be  proved,  not  being  able  to  prove  it, 
we  must  simply  change  it  according  as  our  experience  dictates,  this 
is  precisely  what  we  have  done  with  the  escapement  after  having  fol- 
lowed the  deductions  of  recognized  authorities  with  the  result  that  we 
can  now  illustrate  an  escapement  which  has  been  thoroughly  sub- 
jected to  an  impartial  analysis  in  every  respect,  and  which  is  theoreti- 
cally and  practically  correct. 

We  will  not  only  give  instructions  for  drafting  the  escapement  now 
under  consideration,  but  will  also  make  explanations  how  to  draft  it 
in  diflEerent  positions,  also  in  circular  pallet  and  single  roller.  We 
are  convinced  that  by  so  doing  we  will  do  a  service  to  many,  we  also 


239  Lever  Escapement. 

wish  to  avoid  what  we  may  call  "  the  stereotyped  "  process,  that  is, 
one  which  may  be  acquired  by  heart,  but  introduce  any  changes  and 
perplexity  is  the  result.  It  is  really  not  a  difficult  matter  to  draft 
escapements  in  different  positions,  as  an  example  will  show. 

Before  making  a  draft  we  must  know  exactly  what  we  wish  to  pro- 
duce. It  is  well  in  drafting  escapements  to  make  them  as  large  as 
possible,  say  thirty  to  forty  times  larger  than  in  the  watch,  in  the  pres- 
ent case  the  size  is  immaterial,  but  we  must  have  specifications  for 
the  proportions  of  the  angles.  Our  draft  is  to  be  the  most  difficult 
subject  in  lever  escapements;  it  is  to  be  represented  just  as  if  it  were 
working  in  a  watch;  it  is  to  represent  a  good  and  reliable  action  in 
every  respect,  one  which  can  be  applied  without  special  difficulty  to 
good  watch,  and  is  to  be  "up  to  date  in  every  particular  and  to  con- 
tain the  majority  of  the  best  points  and  conclusions  reached  in  our 
analysis. 

SPECIFICATIONS   FOR    LEVER    ESCAPEMENT. 

The  pallets  are  to  be  equidistant;  the  wheel  teeth  of  the  "club" 
form;  there  are  to  be  two  rollers;  wheel,  pallet,  and  balance  centers 
are  to  be  in  straight  line.  The  lock  is  to  be  i'A°,  the  run  X°>  making 
a  total  lock  of  iU°',  the  movement  of  pallets  from  drop  to  drop  is  to 
be  io°,  while  the  fork  is  to  move  through  ioX°  from  bank  to  bank; 
the  lift  on  the  wheel  teeth  is  to  be  3°,  while  the  remainder  is  to  be 
the  lift  on  the  pallets  as  follows:  lo^— (iM"  +  3)=  SH°  ^or  lift  of  pal- 
lets. 

The  wheel  is  to  have  15  teeth,  with  pallets  spanning  3  teeth  or  2}4 
spaces,  making  the  angle  from  lock  to  lock  =  36o-r-i5X2>^=6o°,  the 
interval  from  tooth  to  tooth  is  360^15=24°;  divide  by  2  pallets=24-j- 
2=12°  for  width  of  tooth,  pallet  and  drop;  drop  is  to  be  i^°,  the 
tooth  is  to  be  U  the  width  of  the  pallet,  making  a  tooth  of  a  width 
of  4>^°  and  a  pallet  of  6°. 

The  draw  is  to  be  12°  on  each  pallet,  while  the  locking  faces  of  the' 
teeth  are  to  incline  24°.  The  acting  length  of  fork  is  to  be  equal  to 
the  distance  of  centers  of  scape  wheel  and  pallets;  the  impulse  angle 
is  to  be  28°;  freedom  for  dart  and  safety  roller  is  to  be  i}i°>  and 
for  dart  and  corner  of  crescent  5°;  freedom  for  ruby  pin  and  acting 
edge  of  fork  is  to  be  iX°;  width  of  slot  is  to  be  K  the  total  motion,  or 
ioX-^2  =  sys°;  shake  of  ruby  pin  in  slot=X°.  leaving  SV&—%=^%° 
for  width  of  ruby  pin. 

Radius  of  safety  roller  to  be  f  of  the  theoretical  impulse  radius. 
The  length  of  horn  is  to  be  such  that  the  end  would  point  at  least  to 
the  center  of  the  ruby  pin  when  the  edge  of  the  crescent  passes  the 
dart;  space  between  the  end  of  horn  and  ruby  pin  is  to  be  i}i°. 

It  is  well  to  know  that  the  angles  for  width  of  teeth,  pallets  and 
drop  are  measured  from  the  wheel  center,  while  the  lifting  and  lock- 


Lever  Escapement.  240 

ing  angles  are  struck  from  the  pallet  center,  the  draw  from  the  locking 
corners  of  the  pallets,  and  the  inclination  of  the  teeth  from  the  locking 
edge. 

In  the  fork  and  roller  action,  the  angle  of  motion,  the  width  of  slot, 
the  ruby  pin  and  its  shake,  the  freedom  between  dart  and  roller,  of 
ruby  pin  with  acting  edge  of  fork  and  end  of  horn  are  all  measured 
from  the  pallet  center,  while  the  impulse  angle  and  the  crescent  are 
measured  from  the  balance  center.  A  sensible  drawing  board  meas- 
ures 17  X  24  inches,  we  also  require  a  set  of  good  drawing  instruments, 
the  finer  the  instruments  the  better;  pay  special  attention  to  the  com- 
passes, pens  and  protractor;  add  to  this  a  straight  ruler  and  set  square. 

The  best  all-round  drawing  paper,  both  for  India  ink  and  colored 
work  has  a  rough  surface;  it  must  be  fastened  firmly  and  evenly  to 
the  board  by  means  of  thumb  tacks;  the  lines  must  be  light  and  made 
with  a  hard  pencil.    Use  Higgins'  India  ink,  which  dries  rapidly. 

We  will  begin  by  drawing  the  center  line  A'  A  B;  use  the  point  B 
for  the  escape  center;  place  the  compass  on  it  and  strike  G  H,  the 
primitive  and  geometrical  circle  of  the  escape  wheel;  set  the  center 
of  the  protractor  at  B  and  mark  of  an  angle  of  30°  on  each  side  of 
the  line  of  centers;  this  will  give  us  the  angles  ABE  and  A  B  F 
together,  forming  the  angle  F  B  E  of  60°,  which  represents  from  lock 
to  lock  of  the  pallets.  Since  the  chord  of  the  angle  of  60°  is  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the  circle,  this  gives  us  an  easy  means  of  verifying  this 
angle  by  placing  the  compass  at  the  points  of  intersection  of  F  B  and 
E  B  with  the  primitive  circle  G  H;  this  distance  must  be  equal  to  the 
radius  of  the  circle.  At  these  points  we  will  construct  right  angles  to 
E  B  and  F  B,  thus  forming  the  tangents  C  A  and  D  A  to  the  primi- 
tive circle  G  H.  These  tangents  meet  on  the  line  of  centers  at  A, 
which  will  be  the  pallet  center.  Place  the  compass  at  A  and  draw 
the  locking  circle  M  N  at  the  points  of  intersection  of  E  B  and  F  B 
with  the  primitive  circle  G  H.  The  locking  edges  of  the  pallets  will 
always  stand  on  this  circle  no  matter  in  what  relation  the  pallets 
stand  to  the  wheel.  Place  the  center  of  the  protractor  at  B  and  draw 
the  angle  of  width  of  pallets  of  6°;  I  B  E  being  for  the  engaging 
and  J  B  F  for  the  disengaging  pallet.  In  the  equidistant  pallet  I  B 
is  drawn  on  the  side  towards  the  center,  while  J  B  is  drawn  further 
from  the  center.  If  we  were  drawing  a  circular  pallet,  one-half  the 
width  of  pallets  would  be  placed  on  each  side  of  E  B  and  F  B.  At 
the  points  of  intersection  of  I  B  and  J  B  with  the  primitive  circle  G  H 
we  draw  the  path  O  for  the  discharging  edge  of  the  engaging  and  P 
for  that  of  the  disengaging  pallet.  The  total  lock  being  i|4^°,  we 
construct  V  A  at  this  angle  from  C  A;  the  point  of  intersection  of 
V  A  with  the  locking  circle  M  N,  is  the  position  of  the  locking  cor- 
ner of  the  engaging  pallet.  The  pallet  having  12°  draw  when  locked 
we  place  the  center  of  the  protractor  on  this  corner  and  draw  the 


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241  Lever  Escapement. 

angle  Q  M  E.  Q  M  will  be  the  locking  face  of  the  engaging  pallet. 
If  the  face  of  the  pallet  were  on  the  line  E  B  there  would  be  no  draw, 
and  if  placed  to  the  opposite  side  of  E  B  the  tooth  would  repel  the 
pallet,  forming  what  is  known  as  the  repella'nt  escapement. 

Having  shown  how  to  delineate  the  locking  faces  of  the  engaging 
pallet  when  locked,  we  will  now  consider  how  to  draft  both  it  and  the 
disengaging  pallet  in  correct  positions  when  unlocked;  to  do  so  we 
direct  our  attention  until  further  notice  to  Fig.  224.  The  locking  faces 
Q  M  of  the  engaging  and  S  N  of  the  disengaging  pallets  are  shown 
in  dotted  lines  when  locked.  We  must  now  consider  the  relation 
which  the  locking  faces  will  bear  to  E  B  in  the  engaging,  and  to  F  B 
in  the  disengaging  pallets  when  unlocked.    This  a  question  of  some 


Fig.  224. 

importance;  it  is  easy  enough  to  represent  the  12°  from  the  30°  angles 
when  locked;  we  must  be  certain  that  they  would  occupy  exactly  that 
position  and  yet  show  them  unlocked;  we  shall  take  pains  to  do  so. 
In  due  time  we  shall  show  that  there  is  no  appreciable  loss  of  lift  on 
the  engaging  pallet  in  the  escapement  illustrated,  the  angle  T  A  V 
therefore  shows  the  total  lift;  we  have  not  shown  the  corresponding 
angles  on  the  disengaging  side  because  the  angles  are  somewhat  dif- 
ferent, but  the  total  lift  is  still  the  same.  G  H  represents  the  primi- 
tive circle  of  the  escape  wheel,  and  X  Z  that  of  the  real,  while  M  N 
represents  the  circular  course  which  the  locking  corners  of  the  pallets 
take  in  an  equidistant  escapement.  At  a  convenient  position  we  will 
construct  the  circle  C  C  D  from  the  pallet  center  A.    Notice  the 


Lever  Escapement.  243 

points  e  and  c  where  V  A  and  T  A  intersect  this  circle;  the  space  be- 
tween e  and  c  represents  the  extent  of  the  motion  of  the  pallets  at 
this  particular  distance  from  the  center  A;  this  being  so,  then  let  us 
apply  it  to  the  engaging  pallet.  At  the  point  of  intersection  o  the 
dotted  line  Q  M  (which  is  an  extended  line  on  which  the  face  of  the 
pallet  lies  when  locked),  with  the  circle  C  C  D,  we  will  plant  our 
dividers  and  transfer  e  c  X.o  o  n.  By  setting  our  dividers  on  o  M  and 
transferring  to«  M',  we  will  obtain  the  location  of  Q'  M,  the  locking 
face  when  unlocked.  Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  disengag- 
ing pallet.  The  dotted  line  S  N  represents  the  location  of  the  locking 
face  of  the  disengaging  pallet  when  locked  at  an  angle  of  12°  from 
F  B.  At  the  intersection  of  S  N  with  the  circle  C  C  D  we  obtain  the 
pointy.  The  motion  of  the  two  pallets  being  equal,  we  transfer  the 
distance  e  c  with  the  dividers  from/  and  obtain  the  point  /.  By  set- 
ting the  dividers  on/  N  and  transferring  to  /  N'  we  draw  the  line  S' 
N'  on  which  the  locking  face  of  the  disengaging  pallet  will  be  located 
when  unlocked.  It  will  be  perfectly  clear  to  anyone  that  through 
these  means  we  can  correctly  represent  the  pallets  in  any  desired 
position. 

We  will  notice  that  the  face  Q  M'  of  the  engaging  pallet  when 
unlocked  stands  at  a  greater  angle  to  E  B  than  it  did  when  locked, 
while  the  opposite  is  the  case  on  the  disengaging  pallet  in  which  the 
angle  S'  N'  F  is  much  less  than  S  N  F.  This  shows  that  the  deeper 
the  engaging  pallet  locks,  the  higher  will  the  draw  be,  while  the 
opposite  holds  good  with  the  disengaging  pallet;  also,  that  the  draw 
increases  during  the  unlocking  of  the  disengaging  pallet.  These 
points  show  that  the  draw  should  be  measured  with  the^r,^  standing 
against  the  bank,  not  when  the  locking  corner  of  the  pallet  stands  on 
the  primitive  circle,  as  is  so  often  done.  The  recoil  of  the  wheel 
(which  determines  the  draw),  is  illustrated  by  the  difference  between 
the  locking  circle  M  N  and  the  face  Q  M  for  the  engaging,  and  S  N 
for  the  disengaging  pallet,  and  along  the  acting  surface  it  is  alike 
on  each  pallet,  showing  that  the  draft  angle  should  be  the  same  on 
each  pallet. 

In  both  the  equidistant  and  circular  pallets  the  locking  face  S  N 
of  the  disengaging  pallet  deviates  more  from  the  locking  circle  M  N 
than  does  the  locking  face  Q  M  of  the  engaging  pallet,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  diagram.  This  is  because  the  draft  angle  is  struck  from  E  B 
which  deviates  from  the  locking  circle  in  such  a  manner,  that  if  the 
face  of  a  pallet  were  planted  on  it  and  locked  deep  enough  to  show  it, 
the  wheel  would  actually  repel  Xhe  pallet,  whereas  with  the  disengag- 
ing pallet  if  it  were  planted  on  F  B,  it  would  actually  produce  draw 
if  locked  very  deep;  this  is  on  account  of  the  natural  deviation  of  the 
30°  lines  from  the  locking  circle.  This  difference  is  more  pronounced 
in  the  circular  than  in  the  equidistant  pallet,  because  in  the  former 


243  Lever  Escapement. 

we  have  two  locking  circles,  the  larger  one  being  for  the  engaging 
pallet,  and  as  an  arc  of  a  large  circle  does  not  deviate  as  much  from 
a  straight  line  as  does  that  of  a  smaller  circle,  it  will  be  easily  under- 
stood that  the  natural  difference  before  spoken  of  is  only  enhanced 
thereby.  For  this  reason,  in  order  to  produce  an  actual  draw  of  12°, 
the  engaging  pallet  may  be  set  at  a  slightly  greater  angle  from  E  B 
in  the  circular  escapement;  the  amount  depends  upon  the  width  of 
the  pallets;  the  requirements  are  that  the  recoil  of  the  wheel  will  be 
the  same  on  each  pallet.  We  must  however  repeat  that  one  of  the 
most  important  points  is  to  measure  the  draw  when  the  fork  stands 
against  the  bank,  thereby  increasing  the  draw  on  the  engaging  and 
decreasing  that  of  the  disengaging  pallet  during  the  unlocking  action, 
thus  naturally  balancing  one  fault  with  another. 

We  will  again  proceed  with  the  delineation  of  the  escapement  here 
illustrated.  After  having  drawn  the  locking  face  Q  M,  we  draw  the 
angle  of  width  of  teeth  of  4>^°,  by  planting  the  protractor  on  the 
escape  center  B.  We  measure  the  angle  E  B  K,  from  the  locking 
face  of  the  pallet;  the  line  E  B  does  not  touch  the  locking  face  of  the 
pallet  at  the  present  point  of  contact  with  the  tooth,  therefore  a  line 
must  be  drawn  from  the  point  of  contact  to  the  center  B.  We  did  so 
in  our  drawing  but  do  not  illustrate  it,  as  in  a  reduced  engraving  of 
this  kind  it  would  be  too  close  to  E  B  and  would  only  cause  confu- 
sion. We  will  now  draw  in  the  lifting  angle  of  3°  for  the  tooth.  From 
the  tangent  C  A  we  draw  T  A  at  the  required  angle;  at  the  point  of 
mtersection  of  T  A  with  the  30°  line  E  B  we  have  the  real  circumfer- 
ence of  the  escape  wheel.  It  will  only  be  necessary  to  connect  the 
locking  edge  of  the  tooth  with  the  line  K  B,  where  the  real  or  outer 
circle  intersects  it.  It  must  be  drawn  in  the  same  manner  in  the  cir- 
cular escapement;  if  the  tooth  were  drawn  up  to  the  intersection  of 
K  B  with  T  A,  the  lift  would  be  too  great,  as  that  point  is  further  from 
the  center  A  than  the  points  of  contact  are. 

If  the  real  or  outer  circle  of  the  wheel  intersects  both  the  locking  cir- 
cle M  N  and  the  path  O  of  the  discharging  edge  at  the  points  where 
T  A  intersects  them,  then  there  will  be  no  loss  of  lift  on  the  engaging 
pallet.  This  is  precisely  how  it  is  in  the  diagram;  but  if  there  is  any 
deviation,  then  the  angle  of  loss  must  be  measured  on  the  real  diame- 
ter of  the  wheel  and  not  on  the  primitive,  as  is  usually  done,  as  the 
real  diameter  of  the  wheel,  or  in  other  words  the  heel  of  the  tooth, 
forms  the  last  point  of  contact.  With  a  wider  tooth  and  a  greater 
lifting  angle  there  will  even  be  a  ^a/«  of  lift  on  the  engaging  pallet; 
the  pallet  in  such  a  case  would  actually  require  a  smaller  lifting  angle, 
according  to  the  amount  of  gain.  We  gave  full  directions  for  meas- 
uring the  loss  when  describmg  its  effect  in  Fig.  203.  Whatever  the  loss 
amounts  to,  it  is  added  to  the  lifting  plane  of  the  pallet.  In  the  dia- 
gram under  discussion  there  is  no  loss,  consequently  the  lifting  angle 


Lever  Escapement.  241 

on  the  pallet  is  to  be  S>^°.  From  V  A  we  draw  V  A  at  the  required 
angle;  the  point  of  intersection  of  V  A  with  the  path  O  will  be  the 
discharging  edge  O.  It  will  now  only  be  necessary  to  connect  the 
locking  corner  M  with  it,  and  we  have  the  lifting  plane  of  the  pallet; 
the  discharging  side  of  the  pallet  is  then  drawn  parallel  to  the  lock- 
ing face  and  made  a  suitable  length.  We  will  now  draw  the  locking 
edges  of  the  tooth  by  placing  the  center  of  the  protractor  on  the  lock- 
ing edge  M  and  construct  the  angle  B  M  M'  of  24°  and  draw  a  circle 
from  the  scape  center  B,  to  which  the  line  M  M'  will  be  a  tangent. 
We  will  utilize  this  circle  in  drawing  in  the  faces  of  the  other  teeth 
after  having  spaced  them  off  24°  apart,  by  simply  putting  a  ruler  on 
the  locking  edges  and  on  the  periphery  of  the  circle. 

We  now  construct  W'  A  as  a  tangent  to  the  outer  circle  of  the 
wheel,  thus  forming  the  lifting  angle  D  A  W'  of  3°  for  the  teeth;  this 
corresponds  to  the  angle  T  A  C  on  the  engaging  side.  W'  A  touches 
the  outer  circle  of  the  wheel  at  the  intersection  of  F  B  with  it.  We 
will  notice  that  there  is  considerable  deviation  of  W'  A  from  the  cir- 
cle at  the  intersection  of  J  B  with  it.  At  the  intersecting  of  this  point 
we  draw  U  A;  the  angle  U  A  W'  is  the  loss  of  lift.  This  angle  must 
be  added  to  the  lifting  angle  of  the  pallets;  we  see  that  in  this  action 
there  is  no  loss  on  the  engaging  pallet,  but  on  the  disengaging  the 
loss  amounts  to  approximately  Ji°  in  the  action  illustrated.  As  we 
have  allowed  X°oiTunior  the  pallets,  the  discharging  edge  P  is 
removed  at  this  angle  from  U  A;  we  do  not  illustrate  it,  as  the  lines 
would  cause  confusion  being  so  close  together.  The  lifting  angle  on 
the  pallet  is  measured  from  the  point  P  and  amounts  to  5>^°  +  the 
angle  of  the  loss;  the  angle  W  A  U  embraces  the  above  angle  besides 
1%°  for  run.  If  the  locks  are  equal  on  each  pallet,  it  proves  that  the 
lifts  are  also  equal.  This  gives  us  a  practical  method  of  proving  the 
correctness  of  the  drawing;  to  do  so,  place  the  dividers  on  the  lock- 
ing circle  M  N  at  the  intersection  of  T  A  and  V  A  with  it,  as  this  is 
the  extent  of  motion;  transfer  this  measurement  to  N,  if  the  actual 
lift  is  the  same  on  each  pallet,  the  dividers  will  locate  the  point 
which  the  locking  corner  N  will  occupy  when  locked ;  this,  in  the 
present  case,  will  be  at  an  angle  of  i>4°  below  the  tangent  D  A.  By 
this  simple  method,  the  correctness  of  our  proposition  that  the  loss  of 
lift  should  be  measured  from  the  outside  circle  of  the  wheel,  can  be 
proven.  We  often  see  the  loss  measured  for  the  engaging  pallet  on 
the  primitive  circumference  G  H,  and  on  the  real  circumference  for 
the  disengaging;  if  one  is  right  then  the  other  must  be  wrong,  as 
there  is  a  noticeable  deviation  of  the  tangent  C  A  from  the  primitive 
circle  G  H  at  the  intersection  of  the  locking  circle  M  N;  had  we 
added  this  amount  to  the  lifting  angle  V '  A  V  of  the  engaging  palle  t, 
the  result  would  have  been  that  the  discharging  edge  O  would  be 
over  1°  below  its  present  location,  thus  showing  that  by  the  time  the 


246  Lever  Escapement. 

lift  on  the  engaging  pallet  had  been  completed,  the  locking  corner  N 
of  the  disengaging  pallet  would  be  locked  at  an  angle  of  2^°  instead 
of  only  iW^-  Many  watches  contain  precisely  this  fault.  If  we  wish 
to  make  a  draft  showing  the  pallets  at  any  desired  position,  at  the  cen- 
ter of  motion  for  instance,  with  the  fork  standing  on  the  line  of  cen- 
ters, we  would  proceed  in  the  following  manner:  ioX°  being  the  total 
motion,  one-half  would  equal  5>i°;  as  the  total  lock  equals  i^°,  we 
deduct  this  amount  from  it  which  leaves  $% — iH=2H°f  which  is  the 
angle  at  which  the  locking  corner  M  should  be  shown  above  the  tan- 
gent C  A.  Now  let  us  see  where  the  locking  corner  N  should  stand; 
M  having  moved  up  S/i°>  therefore  N  moved  down  by  that  amount, 
the  lift  on  the  pallet  being  5>^°  and  on  the  tooth  3°  (which  is  added 
to  the  tangent  D  A),  it  follows  that  N  should  stand  5K  +  3— 5>i  =  3^° 
above  D  A.  We  can  prove  it  by  the  lock,  namely:  3H°  +  ^H  =  Sy&°> 
half  the  remaining  motion.  This  shows  how  simple  it  is  to  draft  pal- 
lets in  various  positions,  remembering  always  to  use  the  tangents  to 
the  primitive  circle  as  measuring  points.  We  have  fully  explained 
how  to  draw  in  the  draft  angle  on  the  pallets  when  unlocked,  and  do 
not  require  to  repeat  it,  except  to  say,  that  most  authorities  draw  a 
tangent  R  N,  to  the  locking  circle  M  N,  forming  in  other  words,  the 
right  angle  R  N  A,  then  construct  an  angle  of  12°  from  R  N.  We 
have  drawn  ours  in  by  our  own  method,  which  is  the  correct  one. 
While  we  here  illustrate  S  N  R  at  an  angle  of  12°  it  is  in  reality  /ess 
than  that  amount;  had  we  constructed  S  N  at  an  angle  of  12°  from 
R  N,  then  the  draw  would  be  12°  from  F  B,  when  the  primitive  cir- 
cumference of  the  wheel  is  reached,  but  more  than  12°  when  the  fork 
is  against  the  bank. 

The  space  between  the  discharging  edge  P  and  the  heel  of  the 
tooth  forms  the  angle  of  drop  J  B  I  of  ij4°;  the  definition  for  drop  is 
that  it  is  the  freedom  for  wheel  and  pallet.  This  is  not,  strictly 
speaking,  perfectly  correct,  as,  during  the  unlocking  action  there  will 
be  a  recoil  of  the  wheel  to  the  extent  of  the  draft  angle;  the  heel  of 
the  tooth  will  therefore  approach  the  edge  P,  and  the  discharging  side 
of  the  pallet  approaches  the  tooth,  as  only  the  discharging  edge 
moves  on  the  path  P. 

A  good  length  for  the  teeth  is  j^  'be  diameter  of  the  wheel,  meas- 
ured from  the  primitive  diameter  and  from  the  locking  edge  of  the 
tooth. 

The  backs  of  the  teeth  are  hollowed  out  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  pallets,  and  are  given  a  nice  form;  likewise  the  rim  and  arms  are 
drawn  in  as  light  and  as  neat  as  possible,  consistent  with  strength. 

Having  explained  the  delineation  of  the  wheel  and  pallet  action  we 
will  now  turn  our  attention  to  that  of  the  fork  and  roller.  We  tried 
to  explain  these  actions  in  such  a  manner  that  by  the  time  we  came 
to  delineate  them  no  difficulty  would  be  found,  as  in  our  analysis  we 


Lever  Escapement.  24G 

discussed  the  subject  sufficiently  to  enable  any  one  of  ordinary  intel- 
ligence to  obtain  a  correct  knowledge  of  them.  The  fork  and  roller 
action  in  straight  line,  right,  or  any  other  angle  is  delineated  after  the 
methods  we  are  about  to  give. 

We  specified  that  the  acting  length  of  fork  was  to  be  equal  to  the 
center  distance  of  wheel  and  pallets;  this  gives  a  fork  of  a  fair 
length. 

Having  drawn  the  line  of  centers  A'  A  we  will  construct  an  angle 
equal  to  half  the  angular  motion  of  the  pallets;  the  latter  in  the  case 
under  consideration  being  103^^°,  therefore  $}i°  is  spaced  off  on  each 
side  of  the  line  of  centers,  forming  the  angles  m  h  k  oi  \oM°. 
Placing  our  dividers  on  A  B  the  center  distance  of  scape  wheel  and 
pallets,  we  plant  them  on  A  and  construct  c  c  ;  thus  we  will  have  the 
acting  length  of  fork  and  its  path.  We  saw  in  our  analysis  that  the 
impulse  angle  should  be  as  small  as  possible.  We  will  use  one  of 
28°  in  our  draft  of  the  double  roller;  we  might  however  remark  that 
this  angle  should  vary  with  the  construction  of  the  escapements  in 
different  watches;  if  too  small,  the  balance  may  be  stopped  when  the 
escapement  is  locked,  while  if  too  great  it  can  be  stopped  during  the 
lift;  both  these  defects  are  to  be  avoided.  The  angles  being  respec- 
tively ioX°  and  28°  it  follows  they  are  of  the  following  proportions: 
28°-!- 10.25=2.7316.  The  impulse  radius  therefore  bears  this  relation 
(but  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  the  angles),  to  the  acting  length  of  fork. 

We  will  put  it  in  the  following  proportion:  let  A^-  equal  acting 
length  of  fork,  and  x  the  unknown  quantity;  28:  10.25  •  ''^c:x:  the 
answer  will  be  the  theoretical  impulse  radius.  Having  found  the  re- 
quired radius  we  plant  one  jaw  of  our  measuring  instrument  on  the 
point  of  intersection  of  cc  with  k  A.  or  m  A  and  locate  the  other  jaw 
on  the  line  of  centers;  we  thus  obtain  A'  the  balance  center. 
Through  the  points  of  intersection  before  designated  we  will  draft  X 
A'  and  Y  A'  forming  the  impulse  angle  X  A'  Y  of  28°.  At  the  inter- 
section of  this  angle  with  the  fork  angle  k  A'  m,  we  draw  /  /  from  the 
center  A;  this  gives  us  the  theoretical  impulse  circle.  The  total  lock 
being  ij^°  it  follows  that  the  angle  described  by  the  balance  in  un- 
locking =^  1^X2.7316=4.788°.  According  to  the  specifications  the 
width  of  slot  is  to  be  53^°;  placing  the  center  of  the  protractor  on  A  we 
construct  half  of  this  angle  on  each  side  of  k  A,  which  passes  through 
the  center  of  the  fork  when  it  rests  against  the  bank;  this  gives  us 
the  angle  5  A  «  of  5>i°.  If  the  disengaging  pallet  were  shown  locked 
then  m  A  would  represent  the  center  of  the  fork.  The  slot  is  to  be 
made  of  sufficient  depth  so  there  will  be  no  possibility  of  the  ruby 
pin  touching  the  bottom  of  it.  The  ruby  pin  is  to  have  1%°  freedom 
in  passing  the  acting  edge  of  the  fork;  from  the  center  A  we  con- 
struct the  angle  /A  «  of  i^°;  at  the  point  of  intersection  of  /A  with 
t  r,  the  acting  radius  of  the  fork,  we   locate  the  real  impulse  radius 


247  Lever  Escapement 

and  draw  the  arc  ri  ri,  which  describes  the  path  made  by  the  face  of 
the  ruby  pin.  The  ruby  pin  is  to  have  X°  o^  shake  in  the  slot;  it  will 
therefore  have  a  width  of  4^°;  this  width  is  drawn  in  with  the  ruby 
pin  imagined  as  standing  over  the  line  of  centers  and  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  the  position  which  the  ruby  pin  is  to  occupy  in  the  drawing. 

The  radius  of  the  safety  roller  was  given  as  f  of  the  theoretical 
impulse  radius.  They  may  be  made  of  various  proportions;  thus  % 
is  often  used.  Remember  that  the  smaller  we  make  it,  the  less  the 
friction  during  accidental  contact  with  the  guard  pin,  the  greater 
must  the  passing  hollow  be,  and  the  horn  of  fork  and  guard  point 
must  be  longer,  which  increases  the  weight  of  the  fork. 

Having  drawn  in  the  safety  roller,  and  having  specified  that  the 
freedom  between  the  dart  and  the  safety  roller  was  to  be  \\i°,  the 
dart  being  in  the  center  of  the  fork,  consequently  k  K  \s  the  center 
of  it;  therefore  we  construct  the  angle  >t  A  X  of  iX°'  At  the  point 
of  intersection  of  X  A  with  the  safety  roller  we  draw  the  arc  g g\ 
this  locates  the  point  of  the  dart  which  we  will  now  draw  in.  We 
will  next  draw  in  d  h!  from  the  balance  center  and  touching  the  point 
of  the  dart;  we  now  construct  b  A'  at  an  angle  of  5°  to  it.  This  is  to 
allow  the  necessary  freedom  for  the  dart  when  entering  the  crescent; 
from  A'  we  draw  a  line  through  the  center  of  the  ruby  pin.  We  do 
not  show  it  in  the  drawing,  as  it  would  be  indiscernible,  coming  very 
close  to  A'  X.  This  line  will  also  pass  through  the  center  of  the 
crescent.  At  the  point  of  intersection  of  A'  b  with  the  safety  roller 
we  have  one  of  the  edges  of  the  crescent.  By  placing  our  compass 
at  the  center  of  the  crescent  on  the  periphery  of  the  roller  and  on 
the  edge  which  we  have  just  found,  it  follows  that  our  compass  will 
span  the  radius  of  the  crescent.  We  now  sweep  the  arc  for  the  latter, 
thus  also  drawing  in  the  remaining  half  of  the  crescent  on  the  other 
side  of  A'  X  and  bringing  the  crescent  of  sufficient  depth  that  no 
possibility  exists  of  the  dart  touching  in  or  on  the  edges  of  it.  We 
will  now  draw  in  the  impulse  roller  and  make  it  as  light  as  possible 
consistent  with  strength.  A  hole  is  shown  through  the  impulse  roller 
to  counterbalance  the  reduced  weight  at  the  crescent.  When  describ- 
ing Fig.  219,  we  give  instructions  for  finding  the  dimensions  of  crescent 
and  position  of  guard  pin  for  the  single  roller.  We  will  find  the 
length  of  horn:  to  do  so  we  must  closely  follow  directions  given  for 
Fig.  220.  In  locating  the  end  of  the  horn,  we  must  find  the  location  of 
the  center  of  the  crescent  and  ruby  pin  a//er  the  edge  of  the  cres- 
cent has  passed  the  dart.  From  the  point  of  intersection  of  A'  d  with 
the  safety  roller  we  transfer  the  radius  of  the  crescent  on  the 
periphery  of  the  safety  roller  towards  the  side  against  the  bank,  then 
draw  a  line  from  A'  through  the  point  so  found.  At  point  of  inter- 
section of  this  line  with  the  real  impulse  circle  rz  ri  we  draw  an  arc 
radiating  from  the  pallet  center;  the  end  of  the  horn  will  be  located 


Lever  Escapement.  248 

on  this  arc.  In  our  drawing  the  arc  spoken  of  coincides  with  the 
dart  radius  gg.  As  before  pointed  out,  we  gave  particulars  when 
treating  on  Fig.  220,  therefore  considered  it  unnecessary  to  further 
complicate  the  draft  by  the  addition  of  all  the  constructional  lines. 
We  specified  that  the  freedom  between  ruby  pin  and  end  of  horn  was 
to  be  iK°;  (these  lines,  which  we  do  not  show)  are  drawn  from  the 
pallet  center.  Having  located  the  end  of  the  horn  on  the  side  stand- 
ing against  the  bank,  we  place  the  dividers  on  it  and  on  the  point  of 
intersection  oi  k  h.  with  gg — which  in  this  case  is  on  the  point  of  the 
the  dart, — and  transfer  this  measurement  along  ^^^  which  will  locate 
the  end  of  the  horn  on  the  opposite  side. 

We  have  the  acting  edges  of  the  fork  on  cc  and  have  also  found 
the  position  of  the  ends  of  the  horns;  their  curvature  is  drawn  in  the 
following  manner:  We  place  our  compasses  on  A  and  ri,  spanning 
therefore  the  real  impulse  radius;  the  compass  is  now  set  on  the  act- 
ing edge  of  the  fork  and  an  arc  swept  with  it  which  is  then  to  be 
intersected  by  another  arc  swept  from  the  end  of  the  horn,  on  the 
same  side  of  the  fork.  At  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  arcs  the 
compass  is  planted  and  the  curvature  of  the  horn  drawn  in,  the  same 
operation  is  to  be  repeated  with  the  other  horn.  We  will  now  draw 
in  the  sides  of  the  horn  of  such  a  form  that  should  the  watch  rebank, 
the  side  of  the  ruby  pin  will  squarely  strike  the  fork.  If  the  back  of 
the  ruby  pin  strikes  the  fork  there  will  be  a  greater  tendency  of 
breaking  it  and  injuring  the  pivots  on  account  of  acting  like  a  wedge. 
The  fork  and  pallets  are  now  drawn  in  as  lightly  as  possible  and  of 
such  form  as  to  admit  of  their  being  readily  poised.  The  banks  are 
to  be  drawn  at  equal  distances  from  the  line  of  centers.  In  delineat- 
ing the  fork  and  roller  action  in  any  desired  position,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  points  of  location  of  the  real  impulse  radius, 
the  end  of  horn,  the  dart  or  guard  pin  and  crescent,  must  all  be 
obtained  when  standing  against  the  bank,  and  the  arcs  drawn  which 
they  describe;  the  parts  are  then  located  according  to  the  angle  at 
which  they  are  removed  from  the  banks. 

A  Problem  in  the  Lever  Escapement.  Among  the  problems  of  the 
detached  lever  escapement  which  often  cause  confusion,  we  wish  to 
mention  one  in  which  the  effect  is  that  the  actual  lock,  at  the  moment 
when  the  escape  tooth  drops  on  the  locking  plane,  is  different  on  each 
pallet,  whereas  it  ought  to  be  alike,  in  so  far  as  angular  lock  is  con- 
cerned. As  regards  the  lock  by  linear  measurement,  in  equidistant 
pallets,  it  is  to  be  alike  on  each  pallet,  but,  theoretically,  net  so  in  the 
circular  pallet,  as  in  the  latter  there  are  two  locking  circles,  the  larger 
one  for  the  engaging  and  the  smaller  one  for  the  disengaging  pallet. 
If  the  angular  lock  in  such  pallet  were  alike,  the  linear  lock  would  not 
be  so.    It  would  be  greater  on  the  engaging  pallet,  the  difference 


249  Lever  Escapement. 

depending  on  the  width  of  the  pallets;  the  wider  they  are,  the  greater 
is  the  difference. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  make  the  linear  lock  alike  on  each  pal- 
let, which  has  the  effect  of  diminishing  the  locking  angle  on  the 
engaging  pallet,  as  it  locks  on  the  longer  lever.  This  certainly  dimin- 
ishes the  friction  during  unlocking  on  the  pallet,  which  causes  the 
greater  resistance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  locking  angle  is  decreased 
by  increasing  the  lifting  angle  on  the  engaging  pallet,  thus  creating 
greater  friction  during  the  lifting  action. 

Having  made  these  necessary  explanations  regarding  the  lock,  we 
will  now  consider  the  effect  described  in  our  opening  lines.  Suppose 
we  examine  an  escapement  in  which  we  find  that  the  actual  lock  on 
the  disengaging  is  much  greater  than  on  the  engaging  pallet.  There 
can  only  be  one  cause  for  it,  and  that  is,  the  lifting  angles  are  dissimi- 
lar on  the  pallets,  and  no  amount  of  shifting  them  in  or  out,  or  of  alter- 
ing their  angular  connection  with  the  fork,  will  make  any  difference 
in  the  relative  locking  angles.  There  is  but  one  remedy,  and  that  is 
to  grind  the  lifting  plane  of  one  of  the  pallets  to  the  required  angle. 

Which  one  are  we  to  grind, 
and  how  are  we  to  do  it?  The 
answer  to  the  first  question  is, 
we  can  grind  either  one,  as  an 
examination  of  Fig.  225  will 
show.  If  we  grind  the  disen- 
gaging pallet  off  to  the  dotted 
Fig.  225.  line  N  P,  we  will  decrease  the 

lock  on  it.  Not  having  altered 
the  discharging  edge  P,  it  follows  that  the  lock  on  the  engaging  pal- 
let has  not  been  altered.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  grind  the  engag- 
ing pallet  to  the  dotted  line  M  O,  it  will  be  discharged  earlier,  thus 
making  the  lock  on  the  disengaging  pallet  so  much  lighter;  in  the 
first  case,  then,  increasing  the  lifting  angle,  in  the  latter,  decreasing  it. 
We  could  also  lessen  the  lift  on  one  and  increase  it  on  the  other,  but 
it  would  be  senseless  to  grind  two  pallets,  if  the  proper  effect  can  be 
obtained  by  grinding  only  one.  Intelligent  investigation  will  show 
which  one  to  grind.  As  a  cardinal  principle,  the  lifting  angles  should 
be  as  small  as  possible.  In  a  movement  of  good  quality  we  can  suc- 
cessfully employ  a  smaller  angle  than  in  one  of  low  quality.  This  is 
the  idea  to  be  kept  in  view,  but  we  will  now  expatiate  upon  it. 

Before  deciding  to  decrease  the  lift  on  the  engaging  pallet,  the  lift- 
ing angles  must  be  closely  examined  when  in  action.  If  it  is  such 
that  no  light  may  be  seen  between  the  lifting  plane  of  the  pallet  and 
heel  of  the  tooth  when  the  latter  stands  even  with  the  locking  edge  of 
the  pallet,  then  the  lift  must  not  be  decreased.  Were  we  to  do  so,  the 
action  would  take  place  under  adverse  circumstances,  as  shown  in 


Lever  Escapement.  250 

Fig.  226.  Further,  when  the  lift  on  the  engaging  pallet  is  decreased 
then  the  inside  drop  is  decreased  as  well;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the 
disengaging  lift  is  decreased  the  outside  drop  will  be  slightly 
decreased,  but  not  nearly  as  much  as  when  the  change  is  made  on  the 
engaging  pallet.  If  the  lift  be  increased  on  either  pallet  no  change  in 
the  drop  will  occur,  and  no  change  will  be  made  in  the  run,  whereas 
if  the  lift  be  decreased  then  the  run  of  the  pallets  to  the  banks  after 
the  drop  has  occurred,  will  be  increased,  and  that,  too,  on  the  pallet 
which  was  not  altered.  Depending  upon  the  more  or  less  accurate 
construction  of  the  escapement,  it  may  or  may  not  necessitate  alter- 
ing the  angular  connection  of  the  pallets  on  the  fork,  or  the  "  let  off," 
as  this  is  called,  so  as  to  equalize  the  run.  A  closer  banking  will  also 
be  required.  This  will  alter  the  freedom  of  the  ruby  pin  when  pass- 
ing the  acting  edge  of  the  fork  and  place  the  guard  point  closer  to  the 
roller. 

If  this  particular  alteration,  that  is,  decreasing  the  lift,  is  made  on  a 
pallet  with  fork  in  one  piece,  either  the  fork  itself  must  be  slightly 
deflected,  which  is  preferable,  or  the  pallet  which  was 
ground  off  pulled  out  a  trifle  and  the  other  one  moved 
back  a  corresponding  amount.  As  to  the  effect  of  these 
changes,  depending  upon  the  constructional  faults,  we 
may  bring  the  pallets  nearer  to  the  theoretical  require- 
ments or  tend  to  annihilate  them,  therefore  we  must  ob- 
'fio.  226  serve  that  an  accurate  knowledge  of  all  the  functions  of 
the  escapement  are  necessary,  if  we  would  intelligently 
make  a  change.  There  are  so  many  apparently  natural  operations 
which  would  destroy  the  theoretical  advantages  of  certain  con- 
structions, and  though  the  timepiece  may  give  fair  service  to  a  per- 
son, whose  requirements  are  not  of  the  most  exacting,  it  would  be  ren- 
dered unfit  for  accurate  timing  under  those  conditions. 

Having  studied  these  points,  the  workman  must  decide  by  the  par- 
ticular escapement  under  his  notice  as  to  whether  there  is  to  be  a  de- 
crease or  an  increase  of  lift. 

To  the  second  question,  how  are  we  to  do  it?  The  diamond  laps 
for  grinding  are  usually  made  of  either  copper  or  of  soft  steel.  For 
this  kind  of  a  job  we  prefer  the  latter.  Take  a  piece  of  soft  steel 
about  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter  and  at  least  one-sixteenth 
thick;  bore  a  hole  through  the  center  of  it  to  exactly  fit  the  arbor 
chuck  of  the  lathe,  turn  it  up  true  in  round  and  flat,  then  stone  on  both 
sides  on  a  soft,  flat  cast-iron  block,  with  oil-stone  dust  and  oil  until 
smooth.  For  charging  the  lap  we  require  a  dead  hard  steel  roller 
about  one-half  inch  long  by  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Through  the  center  of  it  there  is  to  be  a  good  sized  hole,  through  which 
a  steel  pin  passes  freely.  The  roller  is  held  by  the  pin  in  a  frame 
which  is  mounted  in  a  stout  handle. 


251 


Lever  Escapement. 


XI 


<P;C 


I 


Properly  graded  diamond  dust  may  be  procured  from  material  deal- 
ers. It  is  sold  in  five  grades.  For  general  work  use  No.  3  for  grind- 
ing and  No.  5  for  the  polishing. 

To  charge  the  lap,  take  a  small  quantity  of  the  powder,  mix  to  a  stiff 
paste  with  thick  oil  and  thoroughly  roll  it  into  the  lap,  resting  the  lat- 
ter on  a  solid  surface  while  doing  so.  To  remove  the  oil,  clean  in 
benzine  or  alcohol.  The  lap  for  polishing  should  be  of  ivory  and 
mounted  in  the  same  manner.  The  polishing  powder  is  too  fine  to  be 
rolled  into  the  lap,  so  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  apply  a  small  quan- 
tity mixed  with  oil  to  it.  Water  is  generally  applied  to  the  lap  when 
grinding  stone,  and  oil  in  grinding  hard  steel. 

A  method  for  holding  the  pallets  which  is  suitable  for  the  general 
workman  is  to  fix  them  in  the  tool  holder  of  the  slide  rest.    To  do  so 

we  require  a  little 
tool  of  which  we  show 
a  plan  in  Fig.  227, 
and  a  side  view  in 
Fig.  228.  /(''is  a  piece 
of  steel  of  the  form 
of  the  shank  of  the 
slide  rest  cutter.  D, 
Fig.  228,  is  a  steel 
table  pivoted  on  it, 
by  the  shoulder 
screw  .S".  C  is  a  heavy 
spring  screwed  to  the 
table  D.  ^  is  a  set 
screw  for  deflecting 
the  spring  C.  The  pallets  are  placed  on  the  table  D,  the  spring  C  is 
then  clamped  on  them  by  means  of  the  screw  A.  E  is  a.  circular 
groove  in  the  table  D.  B  is  bl  set  screw  with  threads  in  the  holder  //. 
By  means  of  the  latter  screw  the  table  D  may  be  bound  rigidly  to  //, 
or  by  slightly  loosening  it  and  working  the  milled  screw  head  S,  the 
table  may  be  given  a  circular  motion  bounded  by  the  banking  of  the 
ends  of  the  groove  E,  on  the  screw  B.  It  is  important  that  the  center 
of  the  screw  S  should  coincide  with  the  center  of  a  pallet  of  ordinary 
thickness,  when  the  latter  is  clamped  on  the  table  Z>.  Suppose  now, 
we  intend  decreasing  the  lift  on  the  engaging  pallet.  They  are  to  be 
clamped  as  shown  in  Fig.  227  with  the  shank  y¥"put  into  position  in 
the  tool  holder  of  the  slide  rest.  A',  Fig.  227,  is  the  diamond  lap  in 
position  on  the  arbor  chuck  i^  which  is  mounted  in  the  lathehead. 

The  tool  holder,  or  the  upper  slide,  is  set  at  the  angle  desired,  so 
that  when  the  discharging  edge  (9  of  the  pallet  touches  the  lap,  the 
light  between  the  latter  and  the  locking  edge  A/  will  equal  the  amount 
•to  be  ground  off.     In  grinding,  a  very  light  pressure  only  must  be 


Fig.  227. 


Lever  Escapement. 


252 


applied,  the  sound  being  our  guide.  Under  no  circumstances  must 
the  lap  be  allowed  to  get  dry,  and  both  lap  and  traverse  slide  must  be 
kept  in  motion.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  these  points, 
otherwise  success  will  be  out  of  the  question. 

If  the  pallet  is  to  be  flat  on  the  face  it  is  held  parallel  to  the  lap 
through  the  set  screw  B.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  have  a  rounded 
or  convex  face,  the  set  screw  B  is  loosened  and  a  circular  motion  im- 
parted to  the  pallet  by  slowly  moving  the  screw  .Sback  and  forth  with 


Fig.  228. 

one  hand  while  the  other  is  employed  moving  the  traverse  slide.  The 
face  of  the  pallet  must  nearly  be  ground  off  to  the  edge  M;  it  is 
intended  that  the  polishing  should  bring  it  up  to  it.  When  through 
grinding,  we  replace  the  steel  lap  by  the  ivory  polishing  lap  which  we 
charge  as  directed.  We  proceed  the  same  as  in  grinding.  When 
polished,  the  pallets  are  removed  and  thoroughly  cleaned  before  being 
replaced  in  the  watch. 

What  we  have  here  said  is  also  applicable  to  the  Graham  anchor 
for  clocks. — Playtner. 

A  Lever  Escapement  Fault.  This  is  what  is  called  mismatched 
pallets  and  escape  wheel.  In  the  club  tooth  this  error  is  very  fatal 
to  good  rate  and  is  about  as  represented  in  Fig.  230.  With  the  escape- 
ment at  its  best  the  friction  is  very  little,  but 
to  maintain  it  constant  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. Now,  to  thoroughly  explain  the 
fault  above  mentioned  it  is  necessary  to  first 
state  it  and  then  call  attention  to  the  illustra- 
tions. This  error  is  the  relative  pitch  or  slant 
of  the  impulse  plane  of  the  tooth  and  the  pal- 
let. When  in  a  perfect  relation,  as  in  Fig. 
229,  the  tooth  gets  onto  the  impulse  plane  of 
the  pallet,  with  its  front  corner  touching  the  pallet's  plane  and  so  moves 
about  two-thirds  of  the  way  across,  with  only  the  corner  touching,  then 
as  it  proceeds,  the  whole  face  of  the  tooth  touches  the  plane,  shortly 
after  the  front  corner  has  left  the  plane,  and  thus  the  escapement  is 
made.  With  the  faulty  escapement,  as  in  Fig.  230,  the  pallet's  front 
corner  gets  onto  the  impulse  plane  of  the  tooth  and  thus  proceeds  a 


Wig.  229.       Fig.  230. 


253  Locking. 

part  of  the  way  before  the  correct  relation  begins.  Now  when,  as  in 
the  first  case,  the  tooth  rides  over  pallet  with  its  corner,  the  corner  of 
the  tooth  cannot  cut  the  plane  of  the  pallet,  as  the  metal  will  not  act  on 
the  stone;  but  as  in  the  second  case,  when  the  pallet's  corner  gets  onto 
the  plane  of  the  tooth  and  so  proceeds,  the  pallet  corner  will  wear  the 
face  of  the  tooth,  as  the  stone  will  cut  the  soft  metal.  This  fault  is 
present  in  a  more  or  less  degree  in  many  escapements  with  the  club 
tooth,  and  when  a  watch  gives  trouble  by  failing  to  keep  its  rate  after 
cleaning,  as  soon  as  the  oil  is  the  least  dry  on  pallets,  it  argues  that 
this  fault  may  be  looked  for.  The  illustrations  of  the  two  actions  are 
purposely  exaggerated  to  clearly  illustrate  the  points  under  treatment. 

LOCKING.  The  amount  the  escape  tooth  overlaps  the  pallet  at 
at  the  time  it  leaves  the  impulse  face.  The  part  where  the  escape 
tooth  strikes  the  pallet. 

MAGNETISM.  The  agent  or  force  in  nature  which  gives  rise  to 
the  phenomena  of  attraction,  polarity,  etc.,  exhibited  by  the  loadstone, 
magnet,  etc.  A  watch  will  become  magnetized  by  too  close  proximity 
to  a  powerful  magnetic  field,  such  as  is  developed  in  a  dynamo  electro 
machine,  for  producing  electric  light,  or  by  coming  in  contact  with  an 
ordinary  magnet,  as  well  as  other  sources  of  magnetic  or  electro-mag- 
netic  influences,  and  by  these  means  all  its  steel  parts  become  perma- 
nent magnets.  Each  piece  of  steel  has  then  assumed  definite  polarity,  so 
that  if  it  is  balanced  on  a  point  like  a  compass,  it  will,  like  the  latter,  in- 
dicate the  direction  of  the  earth's  magnetic  poles.  The  influence  of  these 
separate  magnets,  one  on  the  other,  and  the  influence  of  the  earth's  mag- 
netism on  the  different  parts,  become  very  potent  disturbers  of  time, 
keeping.  Hairsprings,  balances,  and  other  small  steel  parts  often  become 
magnetized  through  being  handled  with  magnetized  tweezers  or  being 
placed  near  or  in  contact  with  other  steel  tools  that  have  been  magne- 
tized. 

Mr.  B.  Frese  exemplifies  the  influence  of  tlie  separate  magnets  pro- 
duced in  a  watch  by  its  parts  becoming  magnetized  as  follows:  if  we  take 
two  compasses  and  place  them  side  by  side,  so  that  the  two  bearing 
points  of  the  needles  will  form  a  right  angle  to  their  direction,  neither  of 
them  will  show  any  variation  from  their  natural  position  or  the  position 
they  are  compelled  to  take  by  the  influence  of  the  earth's  magnetism ; 
but  by  moving  one  a  little  to  the  North  or  South  of  this  position,  we  no- 
tice a  deflection  in  both,  which  is  caused  by  the  poles  of  unequal  names 
having  been  brought  near  to  each  other.  Besides  this  main  disturbing 
influence  upon  accurate  time  keeping,  we  must  also  consider  the  disturb- 
ance caused  by  direct  attraction,  which  takes  place  by  two  magnetized 
parts  when  their  equal,  as  well  as  their  unequal,  polarities  come  close  to- 
gether, but  when  two  extremities  of  equal  polarity  come  close  together 
or  in  contact,  the  stronger  magnetized  piece  will  cause   the  weaker  to 


Magnetism.  254 

assume  its  own  polarity,  so  that  when  the  South  polarity  of  a  strongly 
magnetized  piece  is  brought  in  contact  with  the  South  polarity  of  a 
weaker,  the  South  of  the  latter  will  be  changed  to  North,  and  the  North 
to  South  when  the  two  North  polarities  have  been  in  contact.  The  larg- 
est steel  parts  in  a  watch  are  the  mainspring  and  the  case  springs,  and 
these  are,  therefore,  the  most  potent  to  cause  a  disturbance  in  a  steel  or 
compensation  balance,  aside  from  the  earth's  magnetism;  the  balance 
being  the  medium  by  which  nearly  all  the  disturbance  is  caused,  as  dur- 
ing its  vibrations  it  makes  different  positions  to  the  polarities  of  the  other 
steel  parts,  as  well  as  the  earth's  polarities,  which  is  the  greatest  dis- 
turber, aside  from  the  mainspring,  the  polarities  of  which  change  in  rela- 
tion to  the  balance  as  the  watch  runs  down.  The  force  one  magnetized 
piece  exerts  on  the  other  multiplies  with  [decreased  distance.  The  fork, 
pallets  and  'scape  wheel  are  too  small  in  bulk  to  cause  much  disturbance, 
either  by  direct  attraction  or  directive  force,  unless  they  are  charged  to 
saturation,  which  very  seldom  occurs.  If  a  magnetized  balance  is  placed 
on  a  poising  tool,  with  the  staff  in  North  and  South  direction,  it  will 
appear  out  of  poise,  caused  by  the  earth's  magnetism,  and  will  maintain 
its  North  polarity  uppermost.  If  it  is  placed  in  an  East  direction,  it  will 
no  longer  allow  the  North  polarity  to  remain  uppermost,  but  will  cause 
the  same  to  move  toward  the  North  and  indicate  the  magnetic  dip,  the 
amount  of  which  varies  in  the  different  latitudes  of  the  globe.  If  we 
place  the  balance  in  a  horizontal  position,  its  north  and  South  polarities 
will  coincide  with  those  of  a  compass,  showing  that  if  the  balance  were 
the  only  part  jnagnetized  in  a  watch,  that  magnetism  causes  more  com- 
plicated variations  than  a  balance  out  of  poise  to  the  same  extent.  That 
trying  to  poise  a  magnetized  balance  would  be  useless,  is  self  evident,  for 
the  reason  that  in  a  horizontal  and  North  and  South  position,  no  equi- 
librum  can  be  obtained.  The  influence  of  magnetized  parts  that  do 
change  position  in  a  watch,  is  a  constant  one,  as  long  as  the  size  ®f 
vibration  is  maintained,  and  is,  therefore,  not  the  cause  of  serious  dis- 
turbance. The  substituting  of  new  case  springs  will,  therefore,  be  of 
little  or  no  benefit. 

To  detect  magnetism,  place  a  pocket  compass  upon  a  show  case,  and 
place  the  watch  to  be  operated  upon  on  the  table  and  close  to  the  com- 
pass,  and  to  the  East  and  West  of  it.  Before  starting  the  test,  stop  the 
watch,  and  keep  it  from  running  by  inserting  a  wedge  made  from  a  thin 
slip  of  paper  beneath  the  balance.  Turn  the  compass  box  around  until 
the  needle  points  to  zero,  before  approaching  the  watch  to  it.  Having 
placed  the  watch  to  the  East  or  West  of  the  compass,  proceed  to  turn 
the  movement,  presenting  first  one  figure  of  the  dial  and  then  another  to 
the  compass,  and  at  the  same  time  noting  the  deflection  of  the  compass 
needle.  Note  whether  the  deflection  is  towards  the  East  or  West,  i.  e., 
whether  it  repels  or  attracts  the  needle.  If  the  movement  is  not  mag 
netized,  the  compass  needle  will  remain  stationary.     If  it  is  magnetized, 


255  Magnetism. 

the  needle  will  be  deflected,  and  by  noting  tne  spot,  you  can  very  readily 
detect  the  magnetized  part.  Magnetism  may  be  removed  from  small 
steel  parts  by  placing  them  in  the  lathe  and  revolving  them  rapidly,  and 
at  the  same  time  approaching  them  with  a  horseshoe  magnet,  and  then 
gradually  withdrawing  the  magnet.  It  is  not  good  policy,  however,  to 
place  any  magnetized  piece  in  your  lathe,  as  you  are  liable  to  magnetize 
chucks,  and  they  will  cause  you  no  end  of  trouble  in  the  future.  De- 
magnetizers  are  now  to  be  purchased  so  cheaply  that  it  will  scarcely  pay 
you  to  experiment  with  home  made  substitutes.     See  Demagnetizer. 

To  Demagnetize  Watches.  As  watches  only  become  magnetized 
by  being  brought  into  too  close  contact  with  magnets,  dynamos,  and  the 
like,  it  is  an  utter  waste  of  time  to  try  and  demagnetize  them  by  applying 
heat  or  cold,  or  rubbing  on  decoctions  of  various  kinds.  Magnetic 
influence  is  the  only  remedy  for  the  evil.  The  application  of  the  remedy 
is  effected  in  various  ways.  If  we  suspect  that  a  watch  is  magnetized, 
the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  prove  it.  It  is  well  to  try  all  watches  for  mag- 
netism before  starting  on  repairs,  and  this  can  be  done  in  the  presence  of 
the  customer.  Place  a  fair  sized  pocket  compass  on,  or  gummed  to  the 
under  side  of  your  show  case  glass,  in  such  a  position  that  when  at  rest 
the  needle  will  point  to  O.  Place  the  watch  a  little  to  the  East  or  West 
of  the  compass  and  revolve  it  showly,  watching  the  needle  of  the  com- 
pass  to  see  if  the  needle  is  deflected.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  centers  of 
the  watch  and  compass  at  a  given  distance  apart.  If  magnetized,  the 
needle  of  the  compass  will  deflect  to  the  right  and  left  as  the  watch  is 
revolved.  Note  the  deflection  at  a  given  point,  and  then  proceed  to 
revolve.  In  this  way  you  can  closely  approximate  the  location  of  the 
affected  part.  By  taking  the  movement  apart  you  can  in  the  same  man- 
ner readily  determine  the  affected  part  or  parts,  and  they  can  be  demag- 
netized without  much  difficulty.  All  of  the  steel  parts  of  a  watch,  except 
the  balance  and  spring,  can  be  readily  demagnetized  in  the  following 
manner:  Place  a  bar  magnet  upon  a  piece  of  white  paper,  previously 
marked  with  lines,  say  one  eighth  of  an  inch  apart.  Lift  the  affected 
part  with  a  pair  of  brass  or  non-magnetic  tweezers,  and  approach  one  end 
of  it  within  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the  magnet,  then  reverse  and 
approach  the  opposite  end  to  within  one-fourth  of  an  inch ;  reverse  and 
approach  first  end  to  within  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  so  on  imtil  you 
reach  a  distance  where  the  magnet  exerts  no  influence.  Test  your  piece, 
as  previously  described,  with  a  compass,  and  if  the  cure  is  not  effected, 
repeat  the  operation.  The  circular  form  of  the  balance  renders  it  some- 
what  more  difficult  to  treat  successfully,  and  it  is  best  demagnetized  as 
follows:  Fasten  the  balance  on  a  large  cork,  say  from  one  and  a  half  to 
two  inches  in  diameter,  by  means  of  a  small  brass  pin  bent  at  right 
angles,  and  mount  the  cork  in  j-our  lathe^nd  revolve.  Take  a  ten-inch 
compound  magnet  and  approach  it  as  closely  to  the  balance  as  possible, 


Mainspring.  25G 

and  .then  gradually  withdraw  the  magnet,  keeping  the  balance  revolving 
meanwhile,  thus  presenting  every  portion  of  it  to  the  influence  of  the 
magnetic  force.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  impossible  to  demagnet- 
ize the  balance,  although  the  operation  may  be  repeated  many  times.  A 
close  examination  and  test  of  the  balance  by  means  of  a  compass  will 
show  that  each  arc  of  the  balance  has  a  positive  and  negative  end,  and 
the  cross-bar  will  be  found  in  the  same  condition.  Under  such  cir- 
cumstances it  is  absolutely  unnecessary  to  thoroughly  magnetize  the 
balance  by  applying  it  to  the  magnet.  You  can  demagnetize  it,  as  pre- 
viously described,  without  difficulty.  It  is  advisable  not  to  use  your  reg- 
ular lathe  in  this  operation,  but  rather  to  use  some  old  lathe,  or  a  polish- 
ing lathe  will  be  found  very  desirable.     See  Demagnetizer. 

MAINSPRING.  The  ribbon  of  steel  which  serves  to  produce  the 
motive  power  for  a  watch,  chronometer,  or  clock.  It  is  said  to  be  the 
invention  of  Peter  Hele,  aclockmaker  of  Nuremberg,  about  the  year 
1500. 

It  would  appear  that  the  mainspring,  when  first  applied  to  the  watch, 
was  not  enclosed  in  a  barrel,  but  the  outer  end  of  the  spring  was  bent  into 
the  form  of  a  hook  and  fixed  to  a  winding  arbor,  together  with  a  ratchet 
wheel  and  click.  A  guard  was  attached  to  one  of  the  plates  in  order  to 
check  the  outer  coil  of  the  spring  and  prevent  it  expanding  too  far.  The 
inner  end  was  made  fast  to  the  axis  of  the  great  wheel,  consequently  it 
was  wound  up  from  the  center.  The  re-expansion  set  the  train  in 
motion. 

The  motive  force  due  to  the  tension  of  a  spring  is  more  or  less  vari. 
able.  The  causes  of  this  want  of  uniformity,  says  Saunier,  areas  follows: 
The  elastic  reaction  of  a  spring  becomes  greater  as  the  spring  is  further 
wound  up.  A  metallic  blade  is  very  rarely  homogeneous,  and  worked 
with  sufficient  care  to  avoid  different  parts  being  of  variable  strength. 
Its  energy  alters  with  time  dependent  on  the  duration  and  intensity  of 
the  flexure,  and  this  change  nearly  always  occurs  irregularly  throughout 
its  length.  Its  elastic  force  diminishes  slightly  on  elevating  the  tempera- 
ture, and  lastly,  a  spring  rubs  against  the  bottom  and  lid  of  the  barrel  in 
uncoiling.  The  successive  coils  also  adhere  and  rub  together,  either  per- 
manently or  occasionally.  All  these  resistances  are  from  the  nature  of 
the  case  variable. 

Various  forms  of  mainsprings  have  been  adopted  from  time  to  time 
The  cylindrical  spring  was  one  in  which  the  central  coils  were  made 
thicker  with  a  view  to  diminish  the  differences  in  the  pull  of  the  spring 
when  wound  up  to  varying  degrees,  and  to  increase  its  energy  when 
nearly  run  down.  The  spring,  when  fully  wound  up,  rubbed  together 
in  the  central  coils,  so  that  the  motive  force  when  it  was  fully  wound  was 
neutralized  by  the  friction.  Tfaese  springs  are  very  rarely  seen  now,  as 
they  were  expensive  to  manufacture,  and  the  advantages  they  possessed 


2.57  Mainspring. 

were  more  apparent  than  real.  The  taper  spring  was  another  form, 
which  is  rarely  seen  now.  The  thickness  of  the  metal  in  these  springs, 
gradually  diminished  throughout  its  entire  length,  the  effect  being  to 
make  the  coils,  when  fully  wound  up,  separate,  and  on  this"  account  the 
spring  developed  freely.  This  form  was  abandoned  on  account  of  the 
cost  of  manufacture.  The  third  form  is  the  ordinary  spring  in  use  to-day, 
the  thickness  of  whose  coils  is  the  same  throughout.  The  develop- 
ment is  less  uniform  than  with  the  tapered  spring,  as  is  also  the  separa- 
tion of  the  coils,  but  it  is  cheaper  of  construction,  and  the  variations  do 
not  exceed  the  limits  that  ordinary  escapements  can  neutralize. 

M.  M.  Roze,  in  a  work  on  the  mainspring,  lays  down  and  demonstrates 
the  following  theorems: 

1.  A  tnainspring  in  the  act  of  uncoiling  in  its  barrel^  always  gives  a 
numbtr  of  turns  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  number  of  coils  in  the 
uf  and  down  positions. 

For  example,  if  17  is  the  number  of  coils  when  the  spring  is  rundown, 
and  25  is  the  number  when  against  the  arbor,  the  difference  between  17 
and  25  or  8,  will  represent  the  number  of  turns  in  the  uncoiling. 

2.  With  a  given  barrel^  spring  and  arbor,  in  order  that  the  number 
of  turns  may  be  a  tnaximum,  it  is  necessary  that  the  length  of  the  spring 
be  such  that  the  occupied  part  of  the  barrel,  {exclusive  of  that  filled  by 
the  arbor),  be  equal  to  the  unoccupied  part;  in  other  words,  the  surface 
covered  by  the  spring  when  up  or  down  must  be  equal  to  the  uncovered 
surface  of  the  barrel  bottom. 

The  diameter  of  the  arbor  is  not  an  arbitrary  quantity,  as  it  depends  on 
the  duration  of  flexure  and  thickness  of  the  spring,  and  this  depends 
greatly  on  the  quality  of  the  metal ;  if  it  is  too  small,  it  is  liable  to  rupture 
the  spring  and  deprive  it  of  part  of  its  elastic  reaction,  and  if  too  large,- 
part  of  this  reaction  will  be  wasted.  M.  Roze  demonstrated  that  the 
thickness  of  the  spring  should  be  to  the  diameter  of  the  arbor  as  i  :26  or 
34,  according  as  the  rotation  of  the  barrel  takes  place  more  or  less  rap- 
idly. For  example,  i  :26  is  best  suited  to  watches ;  i  :30  for  chronome- 
ters ;  and  1 134  for  clocks  or  time  pieces  that  are  expected  to  go  for  longer 
periods.* 

Until  within  a  very  few  years  mainsprings  were  made  by  a  method 
that  had  been  in  use,  and  never  improved  on,  for  years. 

About  1885  the  American  Waltham  Watch  Company  secured  the  ser- 
vices of  foreman  Logan,  who  for  years  had  been  engaged  in  making 
hairsprings,  and  was  about  to  carry  out  a  scheme  for  making  main- 
springs, which  he  had  long  experimented  upon   and  secured  patents  on. 

At  the  outset,  Mr.  Logan  forsook  the  old  methods  of  manufacturing 
springs,  and  adopted  new  and  novel  ways  of  producing  better  results  at 

*If  the  reader  is  desirous  of  studying  the  subject  at  length,  he  is  referred  to  Saun- 
ier's  Modern  Horology,  pp.  d6i  to  675  inclusive,  and  a  Simple  and  Mechanically  Per- 
iect  Watch,  oy  Moritz  Grossman.    Geo.  K.  Hazlitt  A  Co.,  Chicago. 


Mainspring.  258 

less  cost.  The  experiments  necessary  to  such  a  radical  change  were 
costly,  but  the  improvement  in  the  quality  and  finish  of  the  springs  was 
so  gratifying  that  mechanical  appliances  in  great  variety  have  from 
time  to  time' been  put  to  work,  so  that  to-day  the  product  is  double  that 
of  two  years  ago,  while  the  number  of  employes  necessary  is  about  one- 
half,  owing  to  automatic  machinery. 

The  steel  used  is  manufactured  expressly  for  springs,  and  comes  in 
strips  varying  in  length  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  feet.  As  may 
well  be  supposed  the  best  quality  of  steel  adapted  for  the  peculiar  demands 
of  a  first-class  watch  mainspring  was  not  found  without  much  trouble, 
experimenting  and  expense.  Steel  made  in  England,  France,  Belgium, 
and  this  country  were  tried.  After  a  series  of  trials,  just  the  kind  of  steel 
desired  was  obtained.  This  steel  is  run  through  a  machine  which  cuts 
it  into  numerous  narrow  ribbons,  of  widths  suitable  for  the  particular 
size  of  spring  desired. 

These  ribbons  are  simultaneously  wound  upon  bobbins,  and  are  next 
passed,  individually,  through  specially  designed  rolls,  to  bring  the  steel 
to  a  more  exact  and  uniform  thickness  than  can  possibly  be  obtained 
from  steel  makers. 

The  next  operation  is  that  of  rounding  the  edges,  which  is  done  by  a 
new  and  unique  machine.  Following  this  the  flat  sides  are  ground  and 
polished. 

Up  to  this  point  the  steel  is  in  the  untempered  condition  in  which  it  is 
received  at  the  factory.  Hardening  and  tempering  is  next  in  order ;  these 
operations  are  performed  by  new  methods  which  are  almost  automatic. 

One  of  the  elements  which  contributes  largely  to  the  very  successful 
treatment  of  the  steel  in  this  important  but  delicate  part  of  spring  making 
is  that  of  the  fuel  used  for  heating.  In  the  earlier  days  of  the  manu- 
facture a  great  variety  of  fuel  was  tried,  but  nothing  has  been  found  to 
equal  the  carefully  purified  water  gas,  which  is  now  used. 

Next  in  order  the  finishing  polish  is  put  on  the  sides  and  edges  of  the 
ribbons.  Next  the  ribbons  are  cut  up  into  exact  lengths  for  individual 
springs.  The  ends  are  then  annealed,  preparatory  to  the  punching  for 
the  reception  of  the  barrel  arbor  hook  and  the  tip.  After  punching  fol- 
lows coiling,  when  any  faults  in  tempering  are  made  apparent.  If  the 
steel  has  been  overheated  the  severe  strain  of  coiling  will  cause  it  to 
break.  Failure  to  draw  the  temper  sufficiently  low  will  produce  the  same 
result,  while  too  low  a  temper  will  cause  them  to  "  set,"  and  thereby  in- 
dicate their  worthlessness. 

Too  soft  springs  are  seldom  found  and  the  breakage  in  coiling  is  less 
than  one-third  of  one  per  cent.  The  springs  returned  from  the  finishing 
department  of  the  American  factory  for  unsatisfactory  performance  in 
any  direction  amount  to  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent. 

After  the  springs  have  been  coiled,  the  tips  riveted  on,  they  are  care- 
fully gauged  and  then  oiled  to  prevent  rusting.      They  are  then  either 


Dimensions  of  Mainsprings. 
Millimeters  and  FractioTis.       Compiled  by  L.  A.  Grosclaude,  Geneva- 


ns, of  tarns 
spring::  capaUe 

of  developlne. 

TheorEtical  So. 

Beal  ITo. 


No.  of  ocils  the 

Spring  malces  in 

the  barrel  when 

run  down. 


3.92 


9.81 


737  0-414 
762  0.428 
786  0.442 
8110.455 
835  0.469 
860!0.48:i 
885  0.497 
909  0.511 
9:54  0.524 
958  0.538 
98:3:0.552 


541  0.251 
5<)S  0.263 
595  0.376 
622  0.288 
G49  0.:i01 
676  0.313 
703  0.326 
7:J0  0.3:39 
757  0.;351 
784  0.:i64 


811  0.376 
"8380889 
865  0.401 
892  0.414 
919  0.426 
946,0.4:39 
973,0.451 
IOO'VO.464 
1027  0.476 
10*10489 
i0«IJ0.502 


6 

54 


10.70 


885  0345 
914  0.356 
944  0.368 
973  0.379 
1003  0.391 
10:32  0.402 
1()62  0  414 
1091  0.425 
11210.4:3' 
11.50  0.418 
I18(i0.4(>0 


11.63 


319 
.351 
383 
415 
447 
479 
511 
543 
575 
607; 
639 
671 
703 
7:35 
767 
799 
831 
863 
895 
927 
958 
990 
1022 
1054 
1086 
1118 
1150 
1182 
1214 
1246 

l2re 


0.106 

0.117 
0.127 
0.138 
0.119 
0.1. W 
0.170 
0.180 
0.191 
0.202 
0212 
0223 
0.2:33 
0.244 
0.255 
0.265 
0.276 
0.286 
0.297 
0.308 


7 
6;/i 


12.i9 


bo      S 


7% 
7 


13.38 


922 
958 
995 
103; 
UD69 
1106 


0.098 
0.101 
0.110 
0.120 
0.129 
0.138 
0.147 
0.156 
0.165 
0.175 


1143 

1180 

121 

1253 

1290 

132' 

1364 

1401 

14:38 

1475 


0.184 


0.193 
0.202 
0.211 
0.221 
0.230 
0.239 
0.248 
0.25' 
0.26' 
0.276 


294 
303 

313 
322 
3.31 
340 
349 
_359 
0.368 


7'/, 


14.27 


393 
4:32 
472 
511 
550 
590 
629 
668 
708 
747 
786 
826 
865 
904 
944 
983 
1022 
1062 
1101 
1140 
1180 


1219 
1258 
1297 
1S3' 
1376 
1415 
1455 
1494 
15:3:3 


0.066 
0.095 
0.103 
0.112 
0.120 
0.129 
0.138 
0.146 
O.IS.") 
0.163 
0.172 
0.181 
0.189 
0198 
0.207 
0.215 
0  224 
0.233 
0.241 
0.250 
0.259 

0.267 

0.276 

0.284 

0.293 

0.302 

0.310 

0:319 

0.8: 

0  3:36 


1573li'.:^5 


16.C6 


442 

487 
531 
575 
619 
663 
708 
752 
796 
840 
885 
929 
9r3 
101 
1062 
1106 
1150 
1194 
1238 
1283 
1327 
1371 
1415 
1460 
1504 
1548 
1592 
1637 
1681 
1725 
1769 


0.077 
0.084 
0.092 
0.10(1 
0.107 
0.115 
0.123 
0.130 
0.138 
0.146 
0.153 
0.161 
0.169 
0.176 
0.184 
0.192 
0.199 
0.207 
0.215 
0.222 


0.230 
0.2:38 
0.240 
0.253 
0.261 
0.268 
0.276 
0.28:3 
0.291 
(X299 
0.306 


10 
9« 


17  84 


492 
TTl 
590 
639 
688 
73' 
786 
8:36 
885 
934 
983 
1032 

loei 

1131 

1180 

1229 

1278 

13: 

1376 

1425 

1475 

1524 

157 

1622 

1671 

1720 

1770 

1819 

I860 

1917 

1966 


0.069 
<X076 
0.083 
0.090 
0.097 

o.ms 

0.110 
0.117 
0.124 
0131 
0138 
0145 
0.152 
0.159 
0.166 
0172 
0.179 
0.186 
0193 
0200 

0.207 
0.214 
0221 
0.228 
0234 
0241 
0.248 
0.255 
0.262 
0.269 
0.276 


1007  0.566 
1032  0.580 
1057:0  593 
1081|0.607 
1106  0621 
1130  0.635 
1155  0  649 
1179  0.662 
1204  0.676 


1108  0.514 
1135|0527 
116205.39 
118910.552 
1217|0.5':4 
12440577 
1271]0.589 
1298,0.602 
13^10.614 


1209  0.471 
12:390.48:3 
1268  0.494 
1298  0.506 
1327  0.51 
1357  0529 
1386  0.540 
1416  0.552 
1445  0  563 


1:310 
1342 
1:374 
1406 
1438 
1470 
1502 
15.34 
1566 


0.4:35141110.404 

0.446  1445  0  414 

0.4ri 

0  46' 

0.47 

0.488 

0.499 

0.5«i9 

0.520 


1617 
1652 
1686 


1511 
1548 
1585 
1622 
1659 
1696 
1733 
1769 
18C6 


0.3' 

0.386 

0395 

0.405 

0414 

0.423 

0.432 

0.441 

0.451 


1612 
1651 
1691 
17130 
1769 
1809 
1848 
1887 
1927 


1813 
1858 
1G02 
1946 
1990 
2035 
2079 
2123 
216' 


2015 
2064 
2114 
2163 
2212 
3522261 
2310 
2359 
2408 


0.314 

0.322 

0329 

0.337 

0.345 

0, 

0.360 

0.368 

0.375 


0.283 
O290 
0297 
0.303 
0.310 
0.317 
0324 
0.331 
0338 


16.7  6.15 

17  0  6.27 

17.3  6.40 

17.7  6.52 

18.0  6.64 

18.3  6.76 

18.7  6.89 

19.0  7.01 

19.3  7.13 

19.7  17  26 

2G.0  '.7.:38 


1228  0.690 
1253'0704 
1278  0.718 
1302  0731 
1:3270745 
1351  0.759 
1376  0.773 
14000.787 
14250800 
14500.814 
1474lo.8.« 


1352 
1:379 
1406 
14.33 
1460 
1487 
1514 


0.62' 
0.639 
0.652 
0665 
0.677 
0.690 
0.7O2 


1541  071 5 
1D680.72' 
1595:0.740 


147410.575 
1504  0.586 
1533,0.598 
156310.609 
15920.621 
16220632 
1651' 0.644 
1681,0.655 
1710,0.66' 
17400678 


1597 
1629 
1661 
1693 
1725 
1757 
1789 
1821 
1853 
1885 


O530 
O.Ml 
0.552 
0562 


1720  0.493 
17550.502 
1789!0.512 
1824:0..522 
0..573  1S58  0.>32 
0..58:5jlS92  0.542 
O.594I1927  0.55- 


0.(5051961 
0.6151 1996 
0.62612030 


01 

0.5711: 

0.581; 


1622!lt.752 1769|0.690 1917iO.6:372064  1)  59r2212 


0.460 
0.469 
0  478 
0.487 
0.496 
O506 
0515 
0.524 


1966  0. 

2005JO 
204510 
2084O 
21230 
21630 
2202  0 
22410 


2211 

2256 

2300 

2344 

2388 

2133 

24 

2521 


0.383 
0391 
0.398 
0.406 
0.414 
0.421 
0.429 
0.437 
0.444 
0.452 
0.460 


2458 

2507 
2556 
2605 
2654 
2703 


0.345 
0.3:2 
0359 
0365 
0.372 
0.379 


2753  0:386 
2802,0.393 
28510.400 
29000.407 
2949!o.414 


Mainspring  Punch. 


260 


wound  into  capsules  (from  which  they  can  be  transferred  directly  into  a 
watch  barrel)  or  enclosed  in  packages  containing  one  dozen  each. 

The  product  has  been  increased  from  sixty-five  gross  per  month  in 
i8S6,  to  two  thousand  gross  per  month  in  1892.  Of  this  large  amount 
about  two  thousand  springs  are  required  daily  for  the  product  of  watches 
at  the  factory  and  the  remainder  are  sold  to  the  trade  to  supply  the 
watch  repairers  throughout  the  country. 

Cleaning  Mainsprings.  Workmen  have  often  been  seen  cleaning  a 
mainspring  by  seizing  it  with  a  rag  and  then  drawing  it  out  pitilessly 
and  unmercifully.  No  other  consequences  can  follow  such  treatment 
than  the  breakage  of  the  spring  on  the  earliest  possible  occasion. 
Cleaning  is  best  done  in  the  following  manner:  Lay  the  spring  in  ben- 
zine. As  soon  as  the  adhering  oil  is  dissolved,  take  it  out  and  seize  it 
with  a  soft  linen  rag  which  imbibes  the  greater  part  of  the  adhering  ben- 
zine. Cover  the  palm  of  the  left  hand  with  a  corner  of  the  rag ;  put  the 
spring  flat  upon  it  and  with  the  index  finger  of  the  right  hand,  around 
which  another  part  of  the  rag  is  wound,  press  gently  upon  it,  and  let  it 
assume  a  conical  shape ;  by  suitable  motions  of  the  finger  while  wiping, 
the  spring  will  turn,  and  every  part  of  its  blade  may  easily  and  thor- 
oughly be  cleansed  of  all  impurities.  A  spring  treated  in  this  manner 
will  be  freed  of  all  matter,  while  at  the  same  time  its  molecular  arrange- 
ment is  not  violently  interfered  with,  in  a  way  calculated  to  injure  its 
elasticity. 

MAINSPRING  PUNCH.  A  punch  used  by  watchmakers  for  per- 
forating mainsprings.  It  is  inserted  in  a  vise  when  used.  These 
punches  are  also  made  in  the  form  of  tongs  or  plyers. 

MAINSPRING    WINDER.       A   good    maJn«r.r;n„      •  a       ■ 

*'     "    mamspnng   wmder   is  a 

necessary   adjunct  to  every  watchmaker's    bench.      The   Stark    patent 
winder,  shown  in  Fig.  231.  is  a  very  superior  tool,  is  simple  and  durable, 

and  should  last  for  a  life  time. 
The  winder  is  fastened  in 
a  vise:  the  adjustable  nut  i.s 
then  turned  until  the  barrel 
will  fit  loosely  over  the  jaws ; 
the  barrel  is  then  removed 
and  the  spring  wound  on 
the  arbor  inside  the  jaws. 
Now  let  the  handle  turn 
backward  until  the  arbor  is 
free   from   the  center;  pull 


J<'ig.  231. 


the  arbor  back  and  turn  it  half  round ;  place  the  barrel  back  again  over 
the  jaws  and  spring,  and  hold  it  up  tightly  against  the  winder  with  the 
left  hand ;  at  the  same  time  push  the  arbor  forward  with  the  right  hand 


261 


Mainspring  Winder. 


Mainspring  Winder.  263 

until  the  barrel  and  spring  are  free  from  the  jaws,  and  the  spring  will 
be  found  to  be  in  its  proper  place  without  further  operation.  There  are 
two  sizes  of  winding  arbors,  one  for  small  and  the  other  for  large  barrels. 
The  arbors  are  easily  changed  by  turning  the  thumb  screw  up  until  it  is 
free,  then  changing  the  arbors  and  screwing  the  thumb  screw  down  again. 

The  Vaughan  patent  mainspring  winder,  shown  in  the  illustration,  is 
intended  for  removing  and  replacing  springs  in  clock  barrels.  Fig.  232 
shoivs  the  machine  ready  for  use;  Fig.  233  shows  the  arms  adjusted  to 
the  teeth  of  bjirrel,  for  holding  barrel  while  spring  is  being  wound.  Fig. 
234  shows  the  winder  holding  the  spring  after  the  barrel  has  been 
removed,  and  also  as  wound,  ready  to  place  in  the  barrel. 

The  claims  made  for  this  device  are :  It  winds  either  way,  as  the  case 
may  require.  Every  part  is  adjustable,  so  that  it  will  handle  any  spring, 
and  hold  an}'  size  barrel.  Through  the  whole  operation  of  removing  the 
spring  from  the  barrel  and  replacing  it,  the  spring  is  kept  in  its  natural 
position.  After  spring  and  barrel  have  been  cleaned  and  barrel  polished, 
they  need  not  be  touched  with  the  hands,  if  the  operator  chooses  to 
handle  them  with  paper.  The  spring  can  be  oiled  when  wound,  as  in 
Fig.  234,  which  carries  the  oil  to  bottom  of  the  barrel,  and  prevents  any 
excess  of  oil  getting  on  the  outside.  It  does  not  require  a  vise,  but  can 
be  used  in  one  place  as  well  as  another.  There  is  no  strain  on  the  hands, 
more  than  winding  the  spring  after  it  is  in  the  clock.  The  plates  and 
all  the  working  parts  are  made  of  steel,  and  though  light  and  neat  in 
appearance,  it  is  strong  and  durable. 

To  take  the  spring  out  of  the  barrel,  adjust  the  arms  used  to  hold  the 
barrel,  to  the  right  height  to  meet  the  teeth  of  the  barrel  and  swing  them 
wide  open,  securing  them  by  the  thumb  screw  on  the  back  of  the  winder. 
Place  the  barrel  containing  the  spring  over  the  winding  arbor  of  the 
machine,  and  catch  the  hook  on  the  arbor  to  the  spring.  Swing  the 
pawl  lever  to  allow  you  to  wind  the  way  you  desire,  and  turn  the  handle, 
allowing  the  barrel  to  turn  with  it,  until  the  hook  in  the  barrel,  to  which 
the  outer  end  of  the  spring  fastens,  comes  to  within  about  one-half  inch 
of  the  jaws  which  hold  the  outer  edge  of  the  spring  on  the  machine. 
Free  the  arms  and  swing  them  into  the  teeth  of  the  barrel,  and  with  the 
barrel  in  the  center  of  the  machine,  again  secure  them  firmly  by  the. 
thumb  screw.  Take  the  machine  in  the  left  hand,  which  will  enable  you 
to  hold  the  arms  tightly  to  the  barrel,  and  the  barrel  down  to  the  winder, 
without  any  danger  of  their  springing  away.  Wind  the  spring  nearly 
up,  which  will  free  the  outer  coil  from  the  barrel,  and  allow  you  to 
adjust  the  jaws  to  the  spring.  Crowd  the  jaws  onto  the  spring  as  far  as 
possible  and  fasten  them  firmly  to  the  spring  by  means  of  the  thumb 
screw  at  the  upper  end  of  the  winder  The  spring  is  now  transferred 
from  the  barrel  to  the  winder,  and  the  arms  can  be  released  and  the  barrel 
removed.  Reverse  the  pawl  lever  and  turn  the  handle  up  a  trifle,  when 
the  pawl  will  change  sides,  allowing  the  spring  to  let  down. 


263 


Maintaining  Power. 


To  replace  the  spring  in  the  barrel,  wind  the  spring  on  the  machine, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  234.  Place  the  barrel  over  it,  with  the  hook  opposite 
the  hole  in  the  spring.  Reverse  the  pawl  lever  and  let  the  spring  down. 
Release  the  jaws  from  the  spring,  and  the  work  is  done.  The  arms  for 
holding  the  barrel  are  only  used  in  taking  the  spring  out, 

MAINTAINING  POWER.  A  mechanism  for  driving  a  watch  or 
clock  while  being  wound. 

MALTESE  CROSS.  A  wheel  in  the  shape  of  a  maltese  cross, 
used  in  stop  works. 

MANDREL.  A  cheap  form  of  lathe,  but  little  used  in  this  country, 
being  superseded  by  the  American  lathe.  It  is  known  also  as  the  Swiss 
Universal  Lathe.    The  mandrel  is  worked  by  means  of  a  handle,  and  is 


Fig.  235. 

usually  made  with  wheel  and  pinion,  although  a  round  belt  or  gut  is 
sometimes  used.  It  has  a  face  plate,  pump  center,  tail  stock  and  slide 
rest.  This  tool  is  superfluous  where  the  workman  has  an  American 
lathe  with  slide  rest  and  universal  head ;  for  on  a  lathe  with  these  attach- 
ments, a  greater  variety  of  work  can  be  performed  in  less  time  and  in  a 
better  manner. 

MASS.  The  amount  of  matter  a  body  contains.  It  must  not  be 
confounded  with  weight,  for  the  mass  of  a  body  remains  the  same,  no 
matter  in  what  part  of  the  world  it  may  be,  but  its  weight  would  vary  in 
different  latitudes. 


MATERIAL  CUP.  This  cup  will  be  found  very  useful  to  those 
who  keep  small  material  in  bottles.  The  material,  being  placed  in  the 
cup,  spreads  out  over  the  bottom,  and  the  piece  wanted  is  easily  selected. 
The  remainder  can  then  be  returned  to  the  bottle  through  the  spout  with 
no  danger  of  losing  a  piece. 


Matting. 


264 


MATTING.  The  grained  or  frosted  surface  given  to  work  before 
gilding  or  silvering.     See  Electro- Plating. 

MERIDIAN  DIAL.  An  instrument  for  determining  when  the  sun 
is  Of)  the  meridian 

MICROMETER.  An  instrument  used  for  measuring  very  minute 
distances  with  extreme  exactness.     See  Gauge. 

MILLIMETER.  A  lineal  measure  based  on  the  thousandth  part  of 
a  meter,  or  about  one-twenty-fifth  of  an  inch.  It  is  used  principally  by 
French  watchmakers. 

MILLING  CUTTERS.  It  has  been  a  difficult  matter  for  mechanics 


^ 


7 

K) 


Fig.  236. 
to  understand  the  proper  angle  for  a  cutter  to  mill,  or  burr  the  stock,  so 
that  it  will  bend  into  the  proper  angle  and 
make  it  a  right  joint.     Fig.  236  will  convey 
a  very  good  idea  of  the  proper  shapes  or  angles 
for  such  cutters. 

The  angle  of  the  cutter  depends  entirely  on 
the  number  of  sides  the  article  is  to  have,  and 
can  always  be  determined  by  rule.  The  rule 
is  a  simple  one,  which  is  to  divide  360°  by  the 
number  of  sides  to  the  angle,  i.  e.,  36o-=-4=9o. 

MILLING  FIXTURE.  This  attachment 
is  fitted  to  the  slide  rest  and  holds  the  wire 
chuck  vertically  under  the  center  of  the  lathe,  ^^^-  ^•^~' 

so  that  articles  held  in  the  chucks  can  be  fed  under  mills  or  saws  held 
in  the  saw  arbor. 


\ 


2(>5  Minute. 

MINUTE.  The  one-sixtieth  part  of  an  hour.  Sixty  seconds 
equal  one  minute. 

MINUTE  HAND.  The  hand  of  a  time-piece  which  indicates  the 
minutes  and  which  traverses  the  circ'e  of  the  dial  once  each  hour. 

MINUTE  WHEEL.  The  wheel  of  the  motion  work  into  which 
the  cannon  pinion  depths. 

MINUTE  WHEEL  PINION.  The  pinion  upon  which  the  min- 
ute wheel  is  mounted  and  which  depths  with  the  hour  wheel. 

MINUTE  WHEEL  STUD.  The  pin  or  stud  upon  which  minute 
wheel  pinion  revolves. 

MITER  GEARS.  Gears  whose  shafts  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  and  whose  diameters  are  equal.  All  miter  gears  are  bevel 
gears,  but  all  bevel  gears  are  not  miter  gears. 

MOINET,  LOUIS.  A  clever  watchmaker  and  writer  of  France. 
He  was  born  at  Bourges  in  1768  and  died  in  1853. 

MODULUS  OF  ELASTICITY.  The  measure  of  the  elastic 
force  of  any  substance,  expressed  by  the  ratio  of  a  pressure  on  a 
given  unit  of  the  substance  to  the  accompanying  compression. 
Webster. 

MOMENT  OF  ELASTICITY.  Is  the  tendency  of  an  elastic 
body  to  produce  motion. 

MOMENT  OF  INERTIA.  The  resistance  opposed  by  a  body 
in  motion  to  a  change  of  velocity. 

MOMENTUM.  The  amount  of  motion  in  a  body,  which  is  obtained 
by  multiplying  its  mass  by  its  velocity. 

MOSELEY,  CHARLES  S.  Mr.  Moseley  has  been  intimately  con- 
nected with  nearly  every  watch  company  in  the  I Tnited  States,  and  as  a 
mechanical  engineer  and  designer  of  watch  machinery,  of  the  auto- 
matic type,  he  has  had  no  superiors  and  but  few  equals.  Among  those 
thathave  acquired  a  world-wide  reputation  maybe  mentioned  the  inter- 
changeable stem-wind  mechanism  of  the  Elgin  National  Watch  Com- 
pany ;  the  dust-band  used  by  the  same  company,  the  best  and  cheapest 


Motel. 


2CG 


Charles 


ever  made ;  the  triangular  hairspring  stud ;  a  patent  regulator  and  the 
split  chuck,  an  accessory  now  become  universal  and  indispensable  to 
every  watchmaker  in  the  land.  He  was  born  at  Westfield,  Mass.,  Feb. 
28,  1838.  His  first  connection  with  watchmaking 
was  in  1852,  when  he  entered  the  employ  of 
Dennison,  Howard  &  Davis,  at  Roxburj',  Mas*. 
He  followed  the  factory  to  Waltham  and  was 
employed  in  the  capacity  of  foreman  of  the 
machine  shop  and  later  as  master  mechanic.  In 
1859  he  became  master  mechanic  of  the  Nashua 
Watch  factory,  and  designed  and  built  the  machin- 
ery with  which  that  watch  was  manufactured. 
In  1864  he  joined  the  Elgin  National  Watch 
Company,  then  just  starting,  and  was  made  general  superintendent,  in 
which  capacity  he  remained  with  the  company  until  1877. 

MOTEL,  H.  A  French  chronometer  maker,  pupil  and  successor  of 
Louis  Berthoud.  His  chronometers  were  remarkable  for  their  close 
rates  and  for  their  beautiful  construction.     He  died  in  1859. 

MOTION  WORK.  The  wheels  of  a  watch  or  clock  which  cause  the 
hour  hand  to  travel  one-twelfth  as  fast  as  the  minute  hand. 

MOVEMENT.  A  term  usually  applied  to  the  mechanism  of  a 
watch  or  clock,  independent  of  a  case. 

MOVEMENT  BOX.  A  metal  box  with  glass  sides,  for  holding 
watch  movements  while  timing,  etc.,  before  casing.  In  the  Rockford 
box,  shown  in  Fig.  239,  stem  wind  movements  can  be  wound  without 
fingering  or  exposure  to  dust 


^\\\\\\\\\\\vjSS 
Fig.  230.  Fig.  24u. 

MOVEMENT  COVER.  A  glass  shade  to  protect  a  movement, or 
portions  of  a  movement  from  dust  and  from  being  lost  while  undergoing 
repairs.     Fig.    240    illustrates  an   improved   cover,  with   wooden  base 


267 


Movement  Holder. 


divided  into  compartments  for  the  reception  of  tiie  various  parts,  so  they 
may  be  kept  separate  and  readily  picked  out. 

MOVEMENT  HOLDER.  A  metal  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig.  241, 
having  three  adjustable  arms  for  holding  the  movement  by  clamping  on 
to  the  plate.  It  is  useful  in  putting  a  watch  together,  as  it  rests  upon  the 
bench  and  leaves  both  hands  free  to  work  with  and  the  plates  are  kept 
free  from  finger  marks. 


Fig,  241.  Fig.  2i2. 

MOVEMENT  REST.  A  wooden,  bone  or  rubber  shell.  Fig.  242, 
similar  to  eye-glass  frames,  for  holding  movements  while  undergoing 
repairs,  oiling,  etc. 

MUDGE  THOMAS.  The  inventor  of  the  lever  escapement  and  a 
maker  of  marine  chronometers.  He  was  born  at  Exeter,  England,  in 
1715.  He  was  apprenticed  to  the  celebrated  George  Graham  in  1729. 
From  1750  to  1771  he  was  engaged  in  business  in  Fleet 
street,  London.  In  1765  he  invented  the  lever  escape- 
ment. In  1771  he  removed  to  Plymouth.  In  1777  he 
was  made  clockmaker  to  the  king.  In  1793  Parliament 
voted  him  the  sum  of  £2,500,  he  having  previously 
received  £500,  as  a  reward  for  his  marine  time  keepers. 
He  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his  life  to  the  improve- 
ThomasMudge.  ^^^^  ^f  ^j^g  marine  chronometer,  and  his  work  in  thig 
line  was  celebrated  for  finish  and  correct  proportion  of  details.  He 
died  Nov.  24,  1794. 


NON-MAGNETIC  WATCH.  A  watch  whose  parts  cannot  be 
polarized  in  a  magnetic  field ;  a  watch  whose  quick  moving  parts  are 
made  of  some  other  metal  than  steel  or  iron.  Paillard,  who  has  studied 
non-magnetic  metals  with  great  care,  makes  his  balance  springs  of  pal- 
ladium, and  his  balances  of  palladium  alloyed  with  copper,  silver  and 
othei  metals.     In  some  instances  he  appears  to   have  used  a  palladium 


OU.  268 

alloy  for  the  inner  part,  and  brass  for  the  outer  part  of  the  rim,  and  in 
others  to  have  formed  both  laminae  of  different  allojs  of  palladium. 
Aluminium  bronze,  which  combines  strength  with  lightness,  is  particu- 
larly suited  for  the  lever  and  pallets.  The  American  Waltham  Watch 
Company  have  obtained  remarkable  results  in  non -magnetic  watches, 
with  an  alloy  of  platinum.  Steel  in  its  hardened  and  tempered  form, 
has  long  been  used  for  the  balance  springs  of  watches,  but  from  the  fact 
that  it  owed  its  elasticity  to  the  process  of  fire  hardening,  it  has  always 
been  uncertain  in  its  action,  and  often  two  springs  from  the  same  piect 
of  steel  would  give  very  different  results  when  put  to  the  same  tests. 
This,  it  is  claimed,  is  not  true  of  the  alloy  used  by  the  Waltham  Com. 
pany.  The  non-magnetic  spring,  they  claim,  is  a  natural  spring;  it 
requires  no  rolling  or  hammering  to  harden  or  make  it  elastic.  Its  elas- 
ticity is  a  property  of  the  alloy,  and  from  nothing  mechanical  done  to  it, 
and  that  it  cannot  be  annealed,  or  robbed  of  its  elasticity,  can  be  shown 
by  heating  it  to  a  red  heat  of  nearly  i,ioo  degrees  Fahr.,  with  no  change 
of  elasticity.  At  this  degree  of  heat,  steal  is  annealed,  or  becomes  soft, 
and  of  no  use  as  a  spring. 

In  the  expansion  balance  of  ordinary  construction,  intended  to  com- 
pensate for  temperature,  steel  is  used  as  the  metal  of  lowest  expansion 
ratio,  but  in  this  case  never  in  its  hardened  and  tempered  form.  Such  a 
balance  would  be  too  irregular  in  its  action.  No  two  balances  would 
■work  alike,  and  anyone  manufacturing  such  would  find  a  difference  of 
temper  or  degree  of  elasticity  in  each  arm  of  the  inside  steel  laminae.  The 
greatest  controlling  fact  <r  in  the  expansion  balance,  is  the  brass  outside 
laminae,  and  unless  it  is  hammered  or  rolled  it  is  of  no  practical  use.  A 
good  expansion  balance  of  the  usual  make  depends  more  on  the  brass 
than  the  steel  for  its  action,  and  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  brass  is  one 
of  the  most  uncertain  alloys  known,  and  will  often,  when  not  in  use, 
deteriorate  to  such  an  extent  as  to  have  no  value  for  its  original  purpose. 
The  Waltham  non-magnetic  balance  is  said  to  stand  a  change  of  temper- 
ature of  400  degrees  Fahr.,  and  return  to  its  original  form,  as  shown  by 
guages.  The  non-magnetic  balance  metals,  while  having  the  expansion 
ratio  required,  also  have  a  greater  natural  degree  of  elasticity  than  the 
brass  and  steel  construction,  thus  making  a  balance  that,  when  in  use  in 
the  watch,  retains  its  shape,  and  will  not  get  out  of  poise. 

OIL.  One  of  the  most  essential  things  to  the  good  performance  and 
durability  of  a  watch  or  clock  is  good  oil.  A  little  thought  given  to  the 
subject  of  oil  will  show  how  very  essential  it  is  that  only  the  very  best 
attainable  be  used.  The  mechanism  of  a  fine  watch,  and  particularly 
one  of  a  complicated  nature,  is  expected  to  perform  regularly  and  with 
little  or  no  variation,  although  after  a  thorough  cleaning  and  oiling  that 
mechanism  may  not  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  repairer  oftener  than  once 
a  vGOf  and  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  a  longer  interval  of  time.    There 


i:fi9  Oil. 

are  few  mechanical  contrivances  from  wliich  so  much  is  expected  as  a 
fine  watch  or  chronometer,  and  \  et  there  are  none  that  receive,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  mechanism,  so  little  care  and  attention.  The  engineer 
carefully  wipes  and  oils  his  engine  at  least  once  a  day :  the  machinist 
does  the  same  with  the  lathes  and  machines  under  his  care,  but  the 
watch,  a  mechanism  far  more  complicated  and  from  which  much  more 
is  expected  in  regard  to  correct  performance,  does  not  receive  this  care 
oftener,  on  an  average,  than  once  a  year.  How  essential  it  is  then  that 
the  lubricant  be  of  the  finest  possible  quality. 

The  essential  requisites  of  an  oil  that  will  insure  correct  performance 
of  a  watch  during  this  time  are:  | 

1.  It  must  remain  liquid  when  exposed  to  severe  cold. 

2.  It  must  evaporate  slowly  under  intense  heat. 

3.  It  must  not  corrode  on  metal. 

4.  It  must  not  become  gummy. 

What  oils  best  withstand  this  test?  For  many  years  European  watch- 
makers gave  the  preference  to  pure  olive  oil,  but  experiment  has  proven 
that  this  oil  is  wholly  unfit  for  watches  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  all 
vegetable  oils,  for  they  invariably  become  gummy  and  turn  green  when 
placed  in  contact  with  brass.  Neat's  foot  oils  were  found  to  possess  sim- 
ilar unfitting  qualities,  and  mineral  oils  are  found  to  evaporate  too 
quickly. 

Nothing  then  reniains  but  fish  oils  and  those  made  from  a  species  of 
porpoise  known  as  the  black  fish,  are  considered  the  very  best.  Fine 
watch  and  chronometer  oils  of  this  class  are  prepared  from  the  head 
and  jaw  only,  which  parts  yield  a  limited  quantity  of  very  pure  oil, 
known  as  "jaw  and  melon  oil."  This  oil  is  carefully  extracted  without 
allowing  any  flesh  or  blood  to  come  in  contact  with  it,  and  after  trying  is 
filtered  and  retained  in  its  native  purity  as  nearly  as  possible,  no  bleach- 
ing, either  by  sun,  acids  or  alkalies  being  employed.  There  is  a  popular 
fallacy  existing  in  the  trade  that  oils  should  be  used  when  fresh,  and  even 
the  acknowledged  authority,  Saunier,  says,  "do  not  buy,  from  motives  of 
economy,  bottles  that  have  laid  for  years  in  the  shop."  This  may  be 
true  and  probably  is,  in  regard  to  vegetable  and  animal  oils,  which 
are  likely  to  become  rancid  if  kept  for  a  long  time,  but  Wm.  F.  Nye,  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  celebrated  manufacturers  of  fine  watch  and 
chronometer  oils  in  the  world,  declares  that  black  fish  oils  are  improved 
by  age,  and  his  oils  are  seldom  placed  upon  the  market  in  the  same 
year  as  obtained.  We  are  indebted  to  the  same  authority  for  the  state- 
ment that  oils  of  this  kind  are  clearer  and  more  brilliant  after  some  years 
than  fresh  oils.  The  Nye  oils  are  tried  at  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  and  in 
the  following  winter  are  sent  to  St.  Albans,  Vt ,  where  it  is  chilled  down 
and  filtered  at  an  average  temperature  of  25°  below  zero,  and  in  some 
instances,  even  as  low  as  37°  below  zero.  In  this  manner  the  specific 
gravity  and  density  of  the  oil  is  increased,  a  finer  grain  and  texture  are 


Oiler.  270 

secured,  giving  increased  resistance  to  the  eflfects  of  both  heat  and 
cold.  The  two  prominent  manufacturers  of  black  fish  oils  in  this 
country,  and  we  might  say  in  the  world,  are  Wm.  F.  Nye  and  Ezra 
Kelley,both  of  New  Bedford,  Mass.  The  watchmaker  should  be  very 
careful  what  oils  he  uses,  as  many  on  the  market  are  acid  in  tendency 
and  are  made  from  the  olive,  or  are  combinations  of  animal  and 
vegetable  oils. 

OILER.    A  fine  steel  wire,  mounted  in  a  wooden  or  bone  handle  and 
used  for  applying  oil  to  the  mechanism  of  a  watch  or  clock.    Fig.  244 


Fig.  244. 

is  an  oiler,  made  with  14k.  gold  tip,  and  has  a  collet  which  keeps 
the  point  from  touching  the  bench  and  also  prevents  oiler  from  rolling. 

OIL  SINK.  The  depression  around  the  pivot  holes  for  the  pur- 
pose of  furnishing  a  supply  of  oil  and  also  retaining  it  at  the  pivots. 
When  the  oil  sink  is  in  metal  which  is  not  gilt  and  is  blackened,  if 
they  should  be  polished  out  at  the  time  of  cleaning  it  will  probably 
be  at  the  expense  of  the  fresh  oil.  Pivots  should  come  well  through 
the  plate  into  the  sink;  if  they  do  not  the  sink  should  be  deepened. 
Oil  sinks  should  be  deep  rather  than  wide,  and  well  polished.  Saunier 
says  that  care  should  be  taken  that  the  internal  faces  of  the  holes  in 
which  the  shoulders  of  the  axis  rest,  as  well  as  the  external  faces, 
when  these  holes  are  provided  with  end-stones,  are  hollowed  in  tallow 
drop  form,  with  a  very  slight  interval  between  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
and  the  end-stone  When  these  precautions  are  taken,  the  oil,  if  not 
present  in  too  great  a  quantity,  will  neither  spread  nor  run  down  the 
axis,  but  will  remain  partly  in  the  oil  sink  and  partly  attached  to  the 
shoulders  of  the  axis,  and  in  the  case  of  pivot  holes  with  end-stones, 
as  the  oil  is  exhausted,  that  spread  over  the  end-stone  will  be  drawn 
into  the  pivot  hole  through  capillarity. 

OILSTONE.  A  hard,  gritty  stone  upon  which  oil  is  used  for 
sharpening  tools.  The  Arkansas  and  Washita  stones  are  the  two 
principal  American  grades,  the  former  being  the  harder  and  finer.  A 
mixture  of  one  part  alcohol  and  two  parts  glycerine  will  be  found  a 
much  better  lubricant  for  the  oilstone  where  small  tools,  such  as 
watchmakers  use.  are  sharpened,  than  will  the  ordinary  oils  used. 
Oilstones  often  become  so  saturated  with  oil  as  to  be  almost  useless 
and  are  often  abandoned  on  this  account.  Such  a  stone,  if  soaked  in 
benzine  for  a  few  days,  will  come  out  as  good  as  new. 

OILSTONE  DUST.  A  preparation  of  powdered  oilstone,  used 
for  smoothing  pivots  and  other  steel  parts. 


271  Overbanking. 

OVERBANKING.  When  the  balance  vibrates  excessively  and 
causes  the  ruby  pin  to  push  past  the  lever,  it  is  known  as  overbanking. 

OVERCOIL.  The  last  coil  of  a  Breguet  hairspring,  where  it  is 
bent  over  the  body  of  the  spring  towards  the  center,  is  called  the 
overcoil. 

PALLET.  That  portion  of  an  escapement  by  means  of  which  the 
escape  wheel  gives  impulse  to  the  balance. 

PALLET  STAFF.     The  arbor  on  which  the  pallet  is  mounted. 

PALLET  STONES.  The  stones  mounted  in  the  pallet  and  on 
which  the  escape  wheel  strike  and  through  which  the  impulse  is 
transmitted. 

PANTOGRAPH  ENGINE.  A  machine  or  instrument  for  copy- 
ing on  the  same,  an  enlarged  or  a  reduced  scale. 

Making  a  Pantograph.  In  beginning  a  pantograph  attachment 
we  must  have  an  arbor  chuck  to  make  our  cutter  on  and  to  use  it  on 
after  it  is  made.  It  would  also  be  advisable  to  get  a  micrometer  read- 
ing in  thousandths  of  an  inch.  For  the  material  for  the  machine  we 
will  first  get  a  piece  of  soft  steel  %  inch  by  }{  inch  wide  and  3  inches 
long.  At  ^  inch  from  one  end  we  will  bend  it  at  right  angles,  then 
find  the  center  of  its  length  from  the  inside  of  the  bend  to  the  other 
end.  Then  drill  an  %  inch  hole  with  its  center  about  %  inch  from 
the  upper  edge  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  245.  Next  make  the  two  oblong 
holes  B  C.  A  line  drawn  through  their  center  should  come  ^3  inch 
from  a  line  drawn  through  the  center  of  A. 

Then  drill  and  tap  the  hole  E  for  the  screw  that  is  to  hold  the  index 
arm.  At  2  is  shown  a  plan  view  of  the  piece  shown  in  elevation  at  I. 
The  blocks  shown  at  F  and  G  are  held  to  the  plate,  i,  by  the  knurled 
screws  and  steady  pin  made  solid  with  the  block.  Now  it  will  be  seen 
that  for  the  different  thicknesses  of  cutters  which  we  wish  to  make,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  move  the  blocks  in  order  to  have  the  center  of  our 
cutter  blank  come  in  line  with  the  forming  bar  shown  at  H,  2.  The 
hole  to  take  the  arbor  chuck  in  block  G  should  be  bored  out  at  20° 
angle;  that  is  what  most  first-class  lathes  are  in  the  front  end  of  spin- 
dle; with  its  center  on  a  horizontal  line  with  the  center  of  the  hole  for 
the  knurled  screw.  » 

The  block  F  is  drilled  on  the  same  line  to  take  the  steel  center,  I. 
The  blocks  F  and  G  can  be  made  of  hard  brass.  The  block  G 
should  not  fit  the  arbor  chuck  back  of  the  20°  angle  but  should  be 
loose,  so  as  to  depend  wholly  on  the  angle  and  the  steel  center  at  the 
end  of  the  chuck.  Have  the  arbor  chuck  accurately  centered  before 
taking  it  out  of  the  lathe. 

The  index  at  J,  2,  can  be  obtained  from  any  material  house  or 


Panto^aph. 


273 


lathe  manufacturer.  We  can  mount  the  mdex  plate  in  our  Universal 
head  and  bore  it  out  to  take  the  collar,  about  ^^  '"ch  outside  diam- 
eter. Then  bore  out  the  collar  to  fit  the  arbor  chuck.  The  index  is 
fastened  on  to  the  chuck  by  a  set  screw  the  end  of  which  fits  the 
chuck  spline.  About  sixty  (60)  divisions  is  what  we  need  for  making 
cutters  from  ^  inch  to  ^  inch  diameter. 

The  knurled  screws  (2)  can  be  purchased  from  any  large  hardware 
house.  The  index  arm  K,  2,  should  be  of  steel  with  a  spring  to  keep 
it  on  the  index. 


Fig.  245. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  drawings,  that  we  are  preparing  to  make  a 
pinion  cutter  of  40  diametrical  pitch. 

We  will  now  refer  to  5.  We  have  a  universal  joint  which  gives  the 
free  movement  of  our  forming  bar,  H,  2.  The  joint  is  made  of  two 
steel  rings  yi  inch  wide  and  -^  inch  thick;  the  larger  one  being  ^  inch 
in  diameter  outside,  and  the  smaller  one  yi  inch  in  diameter  outside. 
The  piece  T,  5,  is  turned  to  fit  the  T  rest  post;  see  M,  3. 

Now  drill  and  tap  the  larger  ring  U,  5,  and  screw  in  the  piece 
T,  having  a  very  tight  fit.  Next  drill  and  tap  the  ring  U  at  90°  each 
side  of  the  piece  T.  The  smaller  ring  has  four  holes  drilled  90° 
apart;  two  of  them  being  smaller  and  reamed  at  a  60°  taper  to  take 
the  screws  that  are  screwed  through  the  outer  ring  and  turned  at 


273 


Pantograph. 


60°  taper.  The  other  two  holes  are  tapped  to  take  screws  same  as  in 
the  outer  ring;  these  two  screws  fit  into  60°  taper  holes  drilled 
opposite  each  other  in  the  forming-bar  at  Jg  inch  from  the  shoulder 
where  it  is  screwed  into  the  plate.    (2.) 

The  small  forming  cutter  shown  five  times  enlarged  at  6  can 
be  made  of  a  piece  of  Stubb's  wire  .05  in.  diameter  and  }^  inch 
long.  To  turn  the  taper,  set  the  slide-rest  at  6°  and  turn  it  down  till 
it  measures  .03  inch  at  .03  inch  from  the  end  which  is  made  slightly 


Fig.  246. 

concave.  Then  cut  ten  teeth  on  it  and  harden  and  temper,  after 
which  it  is  ready  to  be  used  in  a  wire  chuck  in  the  head  stock  of  the 
lathe. 

The  piece  P  that  is  fastened  to  the  bed  of  the  lathe  to  hold  the 
form  can  be  made  of  cast  brass  planed  to  fit  the  lathe-bed  and  held 
in  position  by  a  cam  lever,  as  the  head  stock  is.  It  is  made  with  a 
step  on  the  end  to  fit  the  lower  end  of  the  form  O;  this  form  is  held 
in  place  by  the  screw  R.  Another  view  of  the  form,  which  is  for  a 
pinion  cutter  of  forty  pitch,  is  shown  at  S,  4;  for  convenience 
this  is  made  of  hard  brass  iK  inch  wide  and  ^V '"ch  thick.  First 
draw  a  vertical  line  through  the  center;  then  make  the  sides  of  the 
form  12°  from  the  center  line  as  in  Fig.  246.     The  lines  are  connected 


Pantograph.  2T4 

by  a  semi-circle  and  the  curves  below  the  pitch  line  are  arcs  of  0.3 
inch  circles;  the  width  of  the  form  at  the  pitch  line  is  .47  inch,  and 
the  length  from  pitch  line  to  the  end  is  0.5  inch. 

Now  it  will  be  seen  that  the  form  is  ten  times  larger  than  the  cut- 
ter we  wish  to  make  and  the  part  of  our  forming-bar  that  we  move 
over  the  form  is  ten  times  longer  from  the  universal  joint  than  the 
distance  from  the  universal  joint  to  the  center  of  our  cutter  blank,  so 
that  everything  is  ten  to  one.  If  we  wish  to  make  a  cutter  of  differ- 
ent form  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  make  an  exact  form  ten  times 
larger  than  the  cutter  we  wish  to  produce.  If  we  wish  to  use  a 
smaller  forming  cutter  than  .03  it  will  be  necessary  to  reduce  the 
end  of  the  forming-bar  accordingly,  or  if  we  wish  to  use  a  forming 
cutter  of  .05  diameter  it  will  be  necessary  to  use  a  collet  on  the 
forming  bar  .5  inch  diameter  to  be  moved  over  the  form. 

PARACHUTE.  A  mechanical  contrivance  used  in  some  of  the 
older  watches,  by  which  the  endstone  was  held  against  the  hole  jewel 
by  a  spring  sufficiently  weak  that  if  the  watch  received  an  extraordi- 
nary shock  the  endstones  would  yield  and  thus  save  the  pivot  from 
harm.     Said  to  be  the  invention  of  Breguet. 

PEG  WOOD.  Small  round  sticks  of  wood  used  for  cleaning  out 
pivot  holes,  etc. 

PENDANT.  The  portion  of  a  watch  case  to  which  the  bow  is 
attached,  and  the  portion  connecting  it  with  the  case. 

Pendant  Bow.  The  ring  of  metal  by  which  the  chain  is  attached 
to  the  case. 

Pendant  Bow  Tightener.  A  form  of  pliers  used  for  tightening 
and  bending  into  form  a  loose  or  distorted  pendant  bow. 

Pendant  Bow  Drill.  A  tool  consisting  of  a  loose  spindle  with  a 
crank  and  drill  rest,  adapted  to  be  used  in  the  vise  on  the  bench. 

PENDULE  WATCHES.  A  name  given  to  watches  of  early  con- 
struction having  on  one  arm,  or  cross-piece  of  the  balance,  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  bob  of  a  pendulum  and  visible  to  the  eye  by  a  portion 
of  the  cock  being  cut  away;  thus  this  arm  of  the  balance,  at  every 
vibration,  would  have  the  appearance  as  well  as  regularity  of  a  pen- 
dulum. 

PENDULUM.  A  body  suspended  from  a  fixed  point  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  swing  freely  to  and  fro  by  the  alternate  action  of  gravity 
and  momentum.  The  theoretical  length  of  a  pendulum,  to  beat  sec- 
onds, or  other  time,  depends  upon  its  location,  for  the  force  that 
gravity  exerts  upon  a  body  depends  on  the  distance  of  the  body  from 
the  center  of  the  earth.    The  length  of  a  seconds'  pendulum  at 


275  Pendulum. 

The  Equator  is 39         inches 

Rio  de  Janeiro 39-oi        " 

Madras 3902        '• 

New  York 39.1012    " 

Paris 39-13        " 

London 39.14        •' 

Edinburgh 3915        " 

Greenland 39-20        " 

North  and  South  Pole 39-2o6      " 

Galileo's  discovery  of  the  law  of  pendulums  was  made  in  1582  (See 
Galileo.).  Observing  the  regularity  of  the  swinging  of  a  lamp,  suspended 
from  the  roof  of  the  cathedral  of  Pisa,  he  noticed  that,  whatever  the  arc 
of  vibration,  the  time  of  vibration  remained  nearly  the  same.  If  a  slight 
angular  movement  be  given  to  a  freely  suspended  pendulum,  its  oscilla- 
tions, while  gradually  diminishing  in  extent,  will  occupy  periods,  which 
at  first  sight,  Galileo  affirmed  to  be  equal.  He  was  mistaken,  however, 
as  the  difference,  although  very  slight  with  short  arcs,  is  none  the  less 
real,  and  Huyghens  discovered  and  proved  that  the  oscillations  of  a  pendu- 
lum are  only  isochronal  when  its  center  of  oscillation  describes  a  cycloidal 
path.  By  experiment,  Galileo  also  determined  the  law  of  the  length  of 
pendulums.  He  found  that  by  increasing  the  length  of  the  pendulum 
the  time  of  vibration  increased. 

The  first  application  of  the  pendulum  to  clocks  was  made  by  Huyghens 
in  1657,  although  Galileo  had  some  idea  of  this  adaptation,  and  he  even 
invented  an  escapement  with  a  view  to  carrying  it  out. 

Simple  Pendulum.  A  purely  theoretical  pendulum,  having  no 
dimensions  except  length  and  no  weight  except  at  the  center  of  oscil- 
lation. A  material  point  suspended  by  an  ideal  line.  The  nearest 
approach  to  a  simple  pendulum  is  a  heavy  weight  suspended  by  a  fine 
silk  thread,  although  this  is  known  as  a  compound  or  physical  pendulum. 

Compound  or  Physical   Pendulum.      A  heavy  weight  suspended 
from  a  fixed  point  by  means  of  a  slender  thread  or   wire  as 
shown  in  Fig.  247. 

Oscillating  Pendulum.  A  pendulum  that  moves  backward 
and  forward  and  whose  lower  extremity  traces  an  arc.  This 
term  is  used  to  distinguish  an  ordinary  pendulum  (which  is 
an  oscillating  pendulum),  from  a  conical  or  torsion  pendulum. 
Fig.  247  is  an  oscillating  pendulum  and  its  path  is  denoted  by 
the  dotted  lines.  Fig.  2*7. 

Conical  Pendulum.  A  pendulum  which  in  its  swing  describes  the 
figure  of  a  cone  in  the  air.      A  pendulum  whose  lower  extremity 


Pendulums.  276 

describes  a  circle  as  shown  hy  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  248.     By  compar- 
ison it  will  be  found  that  a  conical  pendulum  completes  its  circular 

travel  in  the  same  time  that  an  oscillating  pendulum  requires 

to  make  a  complete  swing,  back  and  forth. 

Torsion  Pendulum.  A  torsion  pendulum  is  one  that 
depends  for  its  vibrations  upon  the  twisting  and  untwisting  of 
an  elastic  suspension.  The  path  of  a  torsion  pendulum  is 
unlike  that  of  other  pendulums,  as  it  does  not  swing  from 
right  to  left,  but  simply  revolves  horizontally,  the  suspension 
Fig.  248.  acting  as  an  axis.  The  action  of  a  torsion  pendulum  is  very 
simple;  after  turning  the  bob  or  weight  and  releasing  it,  the  elasticity  of 
the  wire  or  other  suspension  returns  it  to  the  point  of  rest  and  the 
momentum  of  the  weight  carries  it  forward,  twisting  the  suspension  in 
the  opposite  direction,  until  the  weight  reaches  a  point  where  the 
momentum  of  the  weight  is  overbalanced  by  the  resitance  of  the  sus- 
pension, when  the  suspension  again  untwists,  turning  the  bob  in  the  op- 
posite direction.  These  oscillations,  which,  within  certain  limits  are 
very  nearly  equal,  continue  until  the  force  originally  applied  is  exhausted 
in  friction.  The  application  of  the  torsion  pendulum  to  clocks  has  been 
successfully  accomplished.  By  its  use  either  of  two  results 
may  be  secured ;  the  time  of  running  may  be  prolonged  in 
proportion  as  the  period  of  the  torsion  pendulum  is  longer  than 
that  of  an  oscillating  one,  or  the  number  of  gear  wheels 
required  in  the  clock  may  be  greatly  reduced.  Ordinary 
clocks  have  been  constructed  on  this  principle  that  would  run 
a  year  with  a  single  winding,  while  others  have  been  con-  ^^^^ 
structed  that  would  run  a  much  longer  period.  Fig.  249  ^^^ 
illustrates  a  simple  torsion  pendulum  that  can  easily  be  con-  Fig-  249. 
structed  for  experimental  purposes.  It  has  parallel  suspension  wires  | 
inch  apart  and  5  feet  long,  made  from  No.  30  brass  spring  wire.  The 
bob  is  formed  of  a  disc  of  metal,  with  a  series  of  split  lead  balls  pinched 
down  upon  its  edge.  It  has  a  double  loop  fixed  at  the  center  for  fasten- 
ing the  suspension  wires.  The  diameter  of  the  disc  is  4  inches  and  the 
total  weight  of  bob  ij^  pounds. 

Laws  of  Pendulums.  There  are  three  laws  in  regard  to  the 
movement  of  simple  pendulums  that  are  well  to  remember,  i,  T/ie 
number  of  vibrations  per/ormtd  by  pendulums  in  a  given  time  are  inversely 
as  the  square  roots  of  the  lengths.  If  the  bob  is  displaced  from  the  verti- 
cal and  released,  it  will  return,  and  ascend  to  an  equal  distance  on  the 
other  side  in  virtue  of  its  weight.  The  velocity  of  movement  of  the 
pendulum  is  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  falling  bodies  for  the  mov- 
ing pendulum  is  no  more  than  a  falling  body  under  certain  restrictions. 
If  we  assume  the  pendulum  to  be  displaced  laterally  until  its  rod  is  it  a 


277  Pendulums.' 

horizontal  position,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  distance  through  which  it 
descends  is  equal  to  the  length  of  the  pendulum.  Hence  it  follows  that 
the  descent  of  a  short  pendulum  will,  in  virtue  of  the  laws  above  referred 
to,  take  place  in  much  less  time  than  that  of  a  long  one.  Thus,  consider 
the  case  of  a  short  pendulum  whose  length  is  a  quarter  of  that  of  the 
longer  one ;  the  shorter  will  travel  twice  as  quickly  as  the  longer,  or,  in 
other  words,  it  will  perform  two  oscillations  while  the  longer  performs 
one.     The  lengths  are  as  i  :4  and  the  square  roots  of  these  numbers  are 

1  and  2;  thus  the  number  of  oscillations  are  inversely  as  these  square 
roots. 

The  times  occupied  in  the  descent,  or  the  periods  of  the  oscillations,  are  pro- 
portional to  the  square  roots  of  the  length.     If  the  longer  pendulum  fall  in 

2  seconds,  the  shorter  falls  twice  as  quickly  and  will  therefore  reach  the 
vertical  in  i  second;and  2  and  i  are  the  square  roots  of  the  length  4  and  i. 

3.  The  lengths  are  inversely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  the  number  of 
ovulations  in  a  given  time.     If  we  observe  that : 

The  lengths  are i  and  4. 

The  corresponding  number  of  oscillations. 2  and  i. 
The  squares  of  these  number , 4  and  i. 

we  have  some  evidence  of  the  truth  of  this  law.  These  several  laws 
will  enable  us  to  determine  the  length  of  pendulum  for  any  case  that 
presents  itself. 

Saunier  gives  the  following  method  for  determining  the  length  of  a 
simple  pendulum,  the  numbers  of  oscillations  being  given,  or  vice  versa. 
Let  the  pendulum  be  required  to  perform  7,000  oscillations  in  an  hour. 
The  simple  seconds  pendulum  (at  Paris)  measures  994  mm.  (39.13  in.), 
and  it  makes  60  x  60  or  3,600  oscillations  per  hour;  we  thus,  from  the 
law  3  above  given,  have  the  proportion : 

7,000  X  7,000  :  3,600  X  3,600   :    :  994    :  x 
or  49,000,000  :        12,960,000   :    :  994    :  * 

Dividing  the  product  of  the  means  by  the  known  extreme  we  obtain : 

12,960,000    X  994 

X  = =  262.9  mm.  (10.35  ins.) 

49,000,000 

If  the  length  of  a  pendulum  be  given,  say  121  mm.  (4.764  ins),  the 
number  of  oscillations  will  be  calculated  in  accordance  with  law  i : 

\Trr  :  \' 994   :    :  3,600   :  x  f 
or    II    :  31.525    :   :  3,600   :  x 

+  The  radix  sign  ^  indicates  that  the  root  is  to  be  extracted"  from  the  number 
placed  under  it. 


Pendulums.  278 

whence  we  obtain 

31-525  X  3,600 

X  = =  10,317,  the  required  number  of  oscillations. 

II 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  it  was  very  easy  to  find  the  length 
of  the  pendulum  for  a  given  number  of  vibrations,  or  vice  versa, 
although  such  calculations  are  quite  useless  while  we  have  the  accom- 
panying table  of  lengths  of  pendulums  for  any  number  of  oscillations. 
However,  it  may  often  be  necessary  to  solve  such  problems  where  you 
do  not  have  access  to  such  tables,  and  it  is  therefore  valuable  to  know  just 
how  to  proceed. 

M.  Millet  gives  another  method  which  is  rather  more  simple.  Take  as 
a  basis  for  calculation  the  pendulum  that  performs  one  oscillation  in  an 
hour,  the  length  of  which  is  12,880,337.93  meters  (507,109,080  inches)  or 
in  round  numbers,  12,880,338  meters;  by  law  3  we  obtain  the  following 
proportion :    « 

12,880,338:  »  (the  length):  :  F^  (the  velocity) :  i« 

Since  the  square  of  1  is  i,  it  is  only  necessary  to  replace  x  by  the 
length  (if  this  is  given),  or  V  by  the  number  of  oscillations  in  an  hour, 
(if  they  are  pre-determined),  and  the  value  of  the  unknown  quantity 
will  be  obtained. 

Example:  How  many  oscillations  will  be  made  by  a  pendulum  meas- 
uring 305  mm.  (12.008  inches)? 

We  have  the  proportion :     12,880,338:0.305:  :   V^:\. 
Dividing  the  product  of  the  extremes  by  the  known  mean,  * 

*  To  extract  the  square  root  of  a  whole  number,  place  a  point  or  dot  over  the  units' 
place  of  the  given  number,  and  thence  over  every  second  figure  to  the  left  of  that 
place,  thus  dividing  the  whole  number  into  several  periods.  The  number  of  points 
will  show  the  number  of  fig-ures  in  the  required  root.  Find  the  greatest  number  whose 
square  is  contained  in  the  first  period  at  the  left;  this  is  the  first  figure  in  the  root,  and 
may  be  ascertained  by  the  aid  of  the  following  table; 

Number        i,    4,    9,     16,     25,    36,    49,    64,     81. 
Square  Root        i,     2,     3,      4,       S>      6,      7,       8,      9. 

Subtract  'he  square  of  the  number  so  determined  from  the  first  period  and  to  the 
remainder  bring  down  the  second  period.  Divide  the  number  thus  formed,  omitting 
the  last  figure,  by  twice  the  part  of  the  root  already  obtained,  and  annex  the  quotient 
to  the  root  and  also  to  the  divisor.  Then  multiply  the  divisor,  as  it  now  stands,  by 
the  part  of  the  root  last  obtained,  and  subtract  the  product  from  the  number  formed, 
«s  above  mentioned,  by  the  first  remainder  and  the  second  period.  If  there  be 
more  periods  to  be  brought  down  the  operation  must  be  repeated,  and  if,  when  all 
the  periods  have  been  so  brought  down,  there  is  a  remainder,  the  given  number 
has  no  exact  square  root.  If  the  number  be  a  decimal  fraction,  or  a  whole  number 
and  a  decimal  combined,  proceed  in  a  similar  manner,  but  observe  that  a  point  must 
always  occur  over  the  units*  figure  and  on  alternate  figures  from  it  on  either  side 
to  the  right  and  left.    A  decimal  point  will  be  placed  in  the  square  root  Immediately 


279  Pendulums. 

12,880,338 

V^= =  42,230,616, 

0-305 

and  V  will  be  the  square  root  of  this  number,  or  6,498  oscillations  per 
hour. 

If  the  dimensions  are  given  in  English  inches,  the  numbers  507,109,- 
080  and  12.00S  would  be  employed  thus : 

507,109,080:  12.008:  :  F":  i; 

507,109,080 

F5  == =  42,230,936. 

12.008 

The  slight  difference  in  the  results  is  due  to  the  non-equality  of  the 
two  approximate  figures  given  above.  Another  example  is  given  in 
which  it  will  suffice  to  indicate  the  several  stages  of  the  calculation. 

Example:  What  should  be  the  length  of  a  pendulum  to  give  4  100 
oscillations  per  hour.'' 

12,880,338  :x  :  :  4,100* :i; 
12,880,338  :  X  :  :  i6,8io,ooo:  i; 

12,880,338 

*  = =  0.766  meters  (30.158  inches). 

16,810,000 

before  bring-ing  down  the  first  decimal  period,  and  in  cases  where  the  given  number 
has  no  exact  root,  it  may  be  approximated  to  by  bringing  down  successive  pairs  of 
ciphers.    Example'    Extract  the  square  root  of  273,529. 

2735*9(523 
25 

235 
204 


i<H3 


3129 
3129 


Applying  the  above  rulo,  the  square  of  5  or  25,  the  largest  contained  in  27,  is  sub- 
tracted from  the  first  period,  and  to  the  remainder,  the  second  period,  35,  is  attached. 
The  divisor  for  the  dividend  so  formed  is  obtained  by  doubling  the  portion  of  the  root 
already  determined  (5),  and  annexing  2  to  the  10,  since  10  will  divide  twice  into  23, 
the  di%'idend  with  the  last  figure  omitted.  The  2  is  also  added  to  the  quotient  as  form- 
ing a  figfure  in  the  root,  and  I02  multiplied  by  it  as  in  ordinary  division.  The  next  per- 
iod, 29,  having  been  brought  down  to  the  remainder  thus  obtained,  a  similar  operation  is 
affain  gone  throii^^h  the  entire  quotient,  so  far  as  it  has  been  determined,  being  each 
time  doubled. 


Pendulums. 


280 


Table  Showing  the  Length  of  a  Simple  Pendulum 

That  performs  in  one  hour  any  given  number  of  oscillations,  from  t 
to  20,000,  and  the  variation  in  this  length  that  will  occasion  a  difference 
of  I  minute  in  24  hours. 

Calculated  by  E.  Gourdin. 


g 

1h 

3 
0 

0    u 

u 

S2 

h}£  E 

ll 

la  a 

^ 

E   § 

c.S  E 

33 
c  c.-:: 

j3   a 

l5B 
H     3 

3 '.3 
.£■55 

3   w 

►J    - 

.2  a  S 

3   -3 

h)     :z 

0  O.S 

►2  "-a 

►J    .=3 

OV.S 

S 

^   S 

§ 

|oi 

s 

|os 

« 

."  ^3 

rt  I.  0 

« 

d  w  0 

0 

>^S 

0 

>^S 

0 

><BS 

30,000 

33.2 

0.04 

13,200 

73.9 

0.10 

8,200 

191.5 

0.26 

19,000 

35.7 

0.05 

13,100 

75.1 

0.10 

8,100 

196.3 

0.27 

18,000 

39.8 

0.05 

13,000 

76.2 

0.10 

8,000 

201.3 

0.37 

17,900 

40.2 

0.06 

12,900 

77.4 

0.11 

7,900 

206.4 

0.28 

17,800 

40.7 

0.06 

12,800 

78.6 

0.11 

7,800 

211.7 

0.29 

17,7»0 

41.1 

0.06 

12,700 

79.9 

o.u 

7,700 

217.3 

0.30 

ITfiOO 

•41.6 

0.06 

12,600 

81.1 

0.11 

7,600 

22.3.0 

0.30 

17,500 

42.1 

0.06 

12,5()0 

82.4 

0.11 

7,500 

229.0 

0.31 

17.400 

42.4 

0.06 

12,400 

83.8 

0.11 

7,400 

235.2 

0.32 

17,300 

43.0 

0.06 

12,300 

8.3.1 

0.12 

7,300 

241.7 

0.33 

17,200 

43.5 

0.06 

12,200 

86.5 

0.12 

7,200 

248.5 

0.34 

17,100 

44.0 

0.06 

12,iai 

88.0 

0.12 

7,100 

255.7 

0.3S 

17,000 

44.6 

0.06 

12,000 

89.5 

0.13 

7,000 

262.9 

0.36 

16,900 

45.1 

0.06 

11,900 

91.0 

0.12 

6,900 

270.5 

0..37 

16,800 

45.7 

0.06 

11,800 

92.5 

0.13 

6,800 

278.6 

0.38 

16,700 

46.3 

0.06 

11,700 

94.1 

0.13 

6,700 

286.9 

0.S9 

16,600 

46.7 

0.07 

11,600 

95.7 

0.13 

6,600 

295.7 

0.40 

16,500 

47.3 

0.07 

11,500 

97.4 

0.13 

6,500 

,304.9 

0.41 

16,400 

47.9 

0.07 

11,400 

99.1 

0.13 

6,400 

314.5 

0.43 

16,300 

48.5 

0.07 

11,300 

100.9 

0.14 

6,300 

334.5 

0.44 

16,200 

49.1 

0.07 

11,200 

102.7 

0.14 

6,200 

335.1 

0.46 

16,100 

■   49.7 

0.07 

11,100 

104.5 

0.14 

6,100 

346.3 

0.47 

16,000 

50.0 

0.07 

11,000 

106.5 

0.14 

6,000 

357.8 

0.48 

15,900 

51.0 

0.07 

10,900 

108.4 

0-15 

5,900 

370.0 

0.50 

15,800 

51.6 

0.07 

10,800 

110.5 

0.15 

5,800 

383.9 

0.52 

15,700 

52.3 

0.07 

10,700 

112.5 

0.15 

5,700 

396.4 

0.54 

15,600 

52.9 

0.07 

10,600 

114.6 

0.16 

5,600 

410.7 

0.56 

15,500 

53.6 

0.07 

10,500 

116.8 

0.16 

5,500 

425.8 

0.58 

15,400 

54.3 

8.08 

10,400 

119.1 

0-16 

5,400 

440.1 

0.60 

15,300 

55.0 

0.08 

11,300 

111.4 

0.17 

5,300 

458.5 

0.62 

15,200 

55.7 

0.08 

10,200 

123.8 

0-17 

5,200 

476.3 

0.65 

15,100 

56.5 

0.08 

10,100 

126.3 

0-17 

5,100 

495.2 

0.67 

15.000 

57.3 

0.08 

10,000 

128.8 

0.18 

5,000 

.51.5.2 

0.70 

14,900 

58.0 

0.08 

9,900 

131.4 

0.18 

4,900 

5.36.5 

0.73 

14,800 

58.8 

0.08 

9,800 

134.1 

0-18 

4,800 

5.59.1 

0.76 

14,700 

59.6 

0.08 

9,700 

1.36.9 

0.19 

4,700 

583.1 

0.79 

14,600 

60.4 

0.08 

9,600 

1.39.8 

0-19 

4,600 

608.7 

0.83 

14,500 

61.3 

0.08 

9,.500 

142.7 

0.19 

4,500 

636.1 

0.86 

14,400 

68.1 

0.09 

9,400 

145.8 

0.20 

4,400 

665.3 

0.90 

14,300 

63.0 

0.09 

9,300 

148.9 

0.20 

4,300 

696.7 

0.95 

14,200 

6:3.9 

0.09 

9,200 

152.2 

0.21 

4,200 

730.2 

0.99 

14,100 

64.8 

0.09 

9,100 

155.5 

0.21 

4,100 

766.2 

1.04 

14,000 

65.7 

0.09 

9,000 

159.0 

0.22 

4,000 

805.0 

1.09 

13,900 

66.7 

0.09 

8,900 

162.6 

0.22 

8,950 

825.5 

1.12 

13,800 

67.6 

0.09 

8,800 

166.3 

0-23 

3,900 

816.8 

1.15 

13.700 

68.6 

0.09 

8,700 

170.2 

0.23 

3,850 

869.0 

1.18 

13,600 

69.6 

0.09 

8,600 

173.7 

0.24 

3,800 

892.0 

1.31 

13,500 

70.7 

0.09 

8,500 

178.3 

0.24 

3,750 

915.9 

1.25 

13,400 

71.7 

0.10 

S,400 

182.5 

0.25 

3,700 

940.1 

1.28 

13,:j00 

72.8 

0.10 

8,300 

187.0 

0.25 

3,650 

966.8 

1.31 

281 


Pendulums. 


Table  of  the  Length  of  a  Simple  Pendulum, 
(continued.) 


« 

To  Produce  in 

0) 

c 

•5 

u 

24  Hours 

C 
O 

To  Produce 

in  t4  Hours 

_* 

1    Minute. 

rt 

1  Minute, 

u<     3 

1 

■0    t 

Length 
in 

O     ° 

^"" 

^  S 

:S 

»  cS 

A" 

°  a 

Meters. 

Loss, 

Gain, 

S3  a 

is   «   4) 

o5S 

II  i 

X: 

Lengthen  by 

Shorten  by 

E 

3 

B 

3 

Meters. 

Meters. 

z 

^S 

««S 

1,900 

3  600 

0.9939 

1.38 

1.32 

3.568 

0.0050 

0.0048 

3,550 

1.0221 

142 

1.36 

1,800 

3.975 

00055 

0.0053 

3,500 

10515 

146 

1.40 

1,700 

4.457 

0.0062 

0.0059 

3.450 

1.0823 

1.50 

144 

1,600 

5.031 

0  0070 

0.0067 

3.400 

1.1143 

1.55 

1.48 

1,500 

5  725 

0.0U80 

0.0076 

3.350 

1.1477 

1.60 

1.53 

1.400 

6.572 

0.0091 

0.0087 

3,300 

1.1828 

1.64 

1.57 

1,300 

7.622 

0.0106 

0.0101 

3.250 

1.2194 

1.69 

1.62 

1,200 

8.945 

0  0124 

0.0119 

3,200 

1.2578 

175 

1.67 

1,100 

10.645 

0.0148 

0.0143 

3,160 

1.2981 

1.80 

1.73 

1,000 

12.880 

©.0179 

0.0171 

3,100 

1.3403 

1.86 

178 

900 

15902 

0.0221 

0.0211 

3,050 

1.3846 

1.93 

1.84 

800 

20.126 

0  0280 

0.0268 

3,000 

1.4312 

1.99 

190 

700 

26.287 

0  0365 

0.0350 

2.900 

1.5316 

2.13 

2.04 

600 

35  779 

0.0497 

0.0476 

2,800 

1.6429 

2.28 

218 

500 

51  521 

0.0716 

0.0685 

2,700 

1.7669 

2.46 

2  35 

400 

80.502 

0.1119 

0.1071 

2,600 

1.9054 

2.65 

2.53 

30© 

143.115 

0.1989 

0.1903 

2,500 

2.0609 

2  87 

2.74 

200 

333.008 

0.4476 

0.4283 

2,400 

2.2362 

3.11 

2.97 

100 

1,288.034 

1.7904 

1.7131 

2,800 

2.4349 

3.38 

3  24 

60 

3,577.871 

4  9733 

4.7586 

2,200 

26612 

3.70 

8.54 

50 

5,152.135 

7.1613 

6.8521 

2,100 

2.9207 

4.06 

3  88 

1 

12,880,337.930 

17,9036700 

17,130.8500 

2,000 

3.2201 

4.48     4.28 

The  numbers  given  represent  the  oscillations  in  an  hour  of  mean  time 
of  a  simple  pendulum,  measuring  from  the  point  of  suspension  to  the  cen- 
ter of  a  heavy  spherical  bob  attached  to  a  fine  thread,  and  oscillating 
through  an  exceedingly  small  arc  in  a  ''acuum. 

The  compound  or  material  pendulum  employed  for  regulating  hor- 
ological  trains  will  give  the  number  of  oscillations  indicated  in  the  table 
when  the  length  set  opposite  that  number  is  equal  to  the  distance  between 
the  centers  of  suspension  and  oscillation. 

The  assumption  that  the  center  of  oscillation  coincides  approximately 
with  the  point  at  which  the  pendulum  will  rest  horizontally  on  a  knife- 
edge,  is  only  legitimate  when  the  rod  is  very  light,  and  the  weight  of  the 
pendulum  acts  nearly  through  the  center  of  the  bob. 


Pendulums. 


283 


The  watchmaker  will  do  well  to  employ  a  small  platinum  ball,  sus- 
pended in  front  of  a  carefully  graduated  vertical  rule,  by  a  fine  thread 
that  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened  at  will.  If  the  point  of  suspension 
is  determined  by  a  clamp  that  is  opened  or  closed  by  a  set  screw,  it  will 
be  easy  to  adjust  this  pendulum  to  the  length  indicated  in  the  table,  and^ 
by  making  it  oscillate  side  by  side  with  the  compound  pendulum  under 
consideration,  to  ascertain  the  approximate  position  of  the  center  of  sus- 
pension of  this  latter. 

The  length  of  the  pendulum  giving  i  oscillation  in  an  hour  (i2,88o,- 
337.93  meters,  or  507,109,080  inches),  affords  a  useful  datum  for  certain 
calculations  with  reference  to  the  lengths  of  pendulums.  For  an  oscilla- 
tion of  2°  the  lower  end  will  travel  through  a  space  of  280  miles. 

In  the  above  table  all  dimensions  are  given  in  meters  and  millimeters. 
If  it  is  desirable  to  express  them  in  feet  and  inches,  the  necessary  con- 
version can  be  at  once  effected  in  any  given  case  by  employing  the  fol- 
lowing conversion  table,  which  will  prove  of  considerable  value  to  the 
watchmaker  for  various  purposes. 


Inches  expressed  in 

Millimeters 

expressed 

French  Lines  expressed 

Millimeters  and  French 

in  Inches  an 

d   French 

in  Inches  and 

Lines. 

Lines. 

Millimeters. 

Equal  to 

%. 

Eqii 

al  to 

V 

c 

Equal  to 

V 

0) 

E 

►J 

u 

a 

HI 

0 

c 

M 

Millimeters 

French 
Lines. 

Inches. 

French 
Lines. 

Inches. 

Millimeters 

1 

25  39954 

11.25951 

1 

0.0393708 

0.44329 

1 

0.088414 

2.25583 

2 
3 

50.79908 
76.19862 

22.51903 
33.77854 

2 
3 

0.0787416 
0.1181124 

0.88659 
1.32989 

2 
3 

4 

0.177628 
0  266441 
0.355255 

4.51166 
6.76749 
9.02332 

4 

101.59816 

45.03806 

4 

0.1574832 

1.77318 

5 

0.444069 

11.27915 

5 

126.99771 

56.29757 

5 

0.1968539 

2.21648 

6 

0.532883 

1353497 

6 

162.39725 

67.55709 

6 

0.2362247 

265978 

7 

0.621697 

15  79080 

7 
8 

177.79679 
203  19633 

78  81660 
9007612 

7 
8 

02755955 
0.3149664 

3.10307 
3.54637 

8 
9 
10 

0.710510 
0799324 

0  888138 

18.04663 
20.30246 
2255829 

9 

228.59587 

101.33563 

9 

0.3543371 

3  98966 

11 

0.976952 

24  81412 

10 

253.99541 

112.59515 

10 

0.3937079 

4.43296 

12 

1.065766 

27.06995 

283  Pendulums. 

A  meter  is  the  forty-millionth  part  of  a  meridian  of  the  earth.  A  deci- 
meter is  the  tenth  part  of  a  meter.  A  centimeter  is  the  hundredth  part 
of  a  meter.     A  millimeter  is  the  thousanth  part  of  a  meter. 


I  meter  ^  is  f  39-37^79  inches, 

lo  decimeter  !  „„„:„„,£„.  J     3-2So95  feet, 

lOO  centimeters  [        f  |      109363  yards  or 

[Qoo  millimeters  J  °  I    0.00035138  miles 


1   square  centimeter  =  0.1 5501  square  inch. 

I   square   inch  =  6  45127  square  centimeter. 

I  cubic   centimeter    =  006103  cubic  inches. 

I   cubic   inch  =  16.3S618  cubic  centimeters. 

To  Calculate  the  Vibrations  of  a  Pendulum.  Multiply  together 
-  the  number  of  teeth  of  the  wheels,  starting  with  the  one  that  carries  the 
minute  hand  (which  makes  one  revolution  per  hour),  but  omit  the  escape 
wheel.  Multiply  together  the  numbers  of  leaves  of  the  pinions,  com- 
mencing with  the  one  that  engages  with  the  center  wheel.  If  the  first 
product  be  divided  by  the  second,  the  number  obtained  gives  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  escape  wheel  in  an  hour.  Multiply  this  figure  by  t-wice 
the  number  of  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel,  and  the  product  is  the  number 
of  single  vibrations  performed  by  the  pendulum  in  one  hour.  The 
vibrations  of  a  balance  may  be  calculated  in  precisely  the  same  man- 
ner. 

Mercurial  Compensation.  In  the  mercurial  pendulum  with  a  glass 
jar,  the  mercury  does  not  answer  so  quickly  to  a  change  of  temperature 
as  the  steel  rod,  and  preference  is  therefore  now  generally  given  to  thin 
metal  jars;  still  the  elegant  appearance  of  the  glass  jar  in  a  stirrup  ren- 
ders it  suitable  for  show  regulators,  for  which  it  is  still  retained.  The 
following  are  the  dimensions  of  a  good  seconds  pendulum  of  this  class: 
Steel  rod,  .3  inch  in  diameter,  43  inches  long  from  top  of  free  part  of 
suspension  spring  to  bottom  of  sole  of  stirrup ;  side  rods  of  stirrup,  .3  inch 
■wide  and  .125  inch  thick;  height  of  stirrup  inside,  8  inches,  bottom  of 
stirrup,  .5  inch  thick  with  a  recess  turned  out  to  receive  the  jar;  glass 
jar  7.6  inches  deep  and  2  inches  in  diameter  inside,  outside  2.25  in  diam- 
eter, and  7.8  inches  high ;  height  of  mercury  in  the  jar  about  7.4  inches; 
the  weight  of  mercury  11  lbs.  12  oz.  The  steel  parts  may  with  advan- 
tage be  annealed  to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  magnetism. 

The  mercury  divided  between  two  jars  answers  quicker  to  changes  of 
temperature. 

Precision  clocks  with  mercurial  pendulums  have  jars  larger  in  diam- 
eter than  two  ,inches,  made  of  cast  iron  enameled  on  the  inside,  or  of 
steel. 

Great  care  should  be  taken,  when  filling  the  mercury  jar,  to  avoid  air 
bubbles.    The  best  pl?.n   is,  push  the  center  of  a  good  silk  handkerchief 


Pendulums.  384 

into  the  jar  and  pour  in  the  mercury  through  a  long  boxwood  or  other 
funnel  with  but  a  mere  pinhole  for  the  outlet.  When  the  whole  of  the 
mercury  is  poured  in,  carefully  draw  up  the  handkerchief  by  its  four 
corners.  The  jar  of  mercury,  with  a  piece  of  bladder  tied  over  the  top, 
may  then  be  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  about  120°  for  a  week  or  two. 
It  is  important  to  get  the  mercury  as  pure  as  possible  for  a  pendulum. 
A  good  way  of  removing  impurities  is  to  add  sulphuric  acid  to  the  mer- 
cury and  shake  the  mixture  well.  The  metal  is  then  washed,  and  after- 
wards dried  on  blotting  paper.  Another  method  of  purifying  mercury 
is  to  put  it  in  a  bottle  with  a  little  finely-powdered  loaf  sugar.  The  bot- 
tle is  stoppered  and  shaken  for  a  few  minutes,  then  opened  and  fresh  air 
blown  in  with  a  pair  of  bellows.  After  this  operation  has  been  repeated 
three  or  four  times,  the  mercury  may  be  filtered  by  pouring  it  into  a 
cone  of  smooth  writing-paper,  the  apex  of  which  has  been  pierced  with 
a  fine  pin.  The  sugar  and  impurities  will  be  retained  by  the  cone. 
Some  filter  mercury  by  squeezing  it  through  a  piece  of  fine  chamois 
leather.  In  dealing  with  mercury,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the 
injurious  vapor  which  rises  from  it  even  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of 
the  air,  and  of  course  more  freely  at  higher  temperatures. 

Wood  Rod  and  Lead  Bob.  A  cheap  and  good  compensating  pendu- 
lum may  be  made  with  a  wood  rod  and  load  bob.  For  a  seconds  pen- 
dulum the  rod  should  be  .5  inch  in  diameter,  of  thoroughly  well-seasoned 
straight-grained  pine  45  inches  long,  measuring  from  the  top  of  the  free 
part  of  the  suspension  spring  to  the  bottom  of  the  bob.  A  slit  for  the 
suspension  spring  is  cut  in  a  brass  cap  fitting  over  the  top  of  the  rod,  to 
which  it  is  secured  by  two  pins.  A  bit  of  thin  brass  tube  is  fitted  to 
the  rod  where  it  is  embraced  by  the  crutch.  The  rating  screw,  .25  inch 
in  diameter,  is  soldered  to  a  piece  of  brass  tubing  fitting  over  the  rod 
and  secured  by  a  couple  of  pins.  Wooden  rods  require  to  be  coated  with 
something  to  render  them  Impervious  to  the  atmosphere.  They  are 
generally  varnished  or  polished,  but  painting  them  answers  the  purpose 
well.  Mr.  Latimer  Clark  recommends  saturating  them  with  melted 
paraffin,  The  bob,  2.25  inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches  high,  with  a 
hole  just  large  enough  to  go  freely  over  the  wood  rod,  rests  on  a  washer 
above  the  rating  nut.  Shorter  pendulums  for  chime  and  other  clocks 
are  made  of  cherry,  mahogany,  and  ebony,  simply  because  in  such  small 
sizes  pine  does  not  allow  of  sound  attachment  to  the  ends.  These 
pendulums  have  genarally  lenticular-shaped  bobs.  Such  rods  cost 
scarcely  any  more   than  brass  or  iron,  and  are  infinitely  preferable. 

It  is  essential  that  the  grain  of  a  wood  pendulum  rod  should  be  per- 
fectly straight,  for  if  the  grain  is  not  straight,  the  rod  is  likely  to  bend, 
causing  the  clock  to  go  very  irregularly. 

Importance  of  Fixing.  Whatever  kind  of  pendulum  is  used,  it  will 
not  keep  time  unless  it  is  rigidly  fixed.     Just  as  engineer  clockmakers 


285  Pendulums. 

invariably  make  their  escape  wheels  and  other  moving  parts  too  heavy, 
so  clockmakers  always  seem  afraid  to  put  enough  metal  in  their  pendu- 
lum cocks  and  brackets,  which  have  rarely  enough  base  either.  The 
beneficial  effect  of  the  heavy  pendulum  bobs,  which  it  has  been  the  cus- 
torn  recently  to  use  for  regulator  and  turret  clocks,  is  often  quite  lost  for 
want  of  sufficient  fixing  for  the  pendulum.  For  a  regulator,  the  pendu. 
lum  should  be  supported  on  a  cast-iron  bracket  with  a  base  at  least  lo 
inches  square,  bolted  right  through  the  back  of  the  case,  which  should 
be  not  less  than  an  inch  and  a  quarter  thick.  For  a  turret  clock  a 
bracket  of  a  proportional  size  should  be  used,  bolted  to  one  of  the  main 
walls  of  the  building,  or,  if  attached  to  the  clock  frame,  the  rigid  con- 
nection of  the  latter  with  the  walls  by  means  of  girders  or  cantilevers 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of.  A  timber  frame  fixing  for  a  turret  clock 
pendulum  will  never  be  satisfactory. 

Lengfth  of  Pendulums.  One-second  pendulums  are  long  enough  for 
all  but  turret  clocks,  and  longer  than  two-second  pendulums  should  not 
be  used.  The  very  long  pendulums  used  by  the  old  clockmakers  for 
turret  clocks  in  order  to  get,  as  they  expressed  it,  "dominion  over  the 
clock,"  were  unwieldy  and  unsteady  from  the  action  of  the  wind  and 
other  causes.  The  requisite  "  dominion ''  is  now  obtained  by  making  the 
bob  heavier. 

Pendulum  Error.  The  long  and  short  vibrations  of  a  free  pendulum 
will  only  be  isochronous  if  the  path  described  is  a  cycloid,  which  is  a 
curve  described  by  rolling  a  circle  along  a  straight  line.  If  the  generat- 
ing circle,  instead  of  being  rolled  on  another  circle,  were  rolled  along  a 
straight  edge,  it  would  describe  a  cycloid.  But  a  pendulum  swung  freely 
from  a  point  travels  through  a  circular  path,  and  the  long  arcs  are 
performed  slower  than  the  short  ones.  This  divergence  from  the  theo- 
retical cycloid  was  of  great  importance  when  the  arc  described  was  large, 
as  it  was  of  necessity  with  the  verge  escapement,  and  many  devices  were 
tried  to  lead  the  pendulum  through  a  cycloid.  With  an  arc  of  about  3° 
only,  such  as  regulator  pendulums  describe  now,  the  divergence  is  very 
small. 

Escapement  Error.  The  kind  of  escapement  used  also  affects  the 
time  of  vibration;  for  instance,  it  is  found  that,  while  with  the  recoil 
escapement  increased  motive  power  and  greater  arc  causes  the  clock  to 
gain,  the  contrary  effect  is  produced  with  the  dead-beat  escapement. 
The  pendulum  error  may,  therefore,  be  aggravated  or  neutralized  by  the 
escapement  error. 

Temperature  Error.  With  increase  of  temperature,  the  pendulum 
in  common  with  most  other  substances,  lengthens,  and  the  clock  loses; 
with  decrease  of  temperature  the  contrary  effect  is  produced.      The 


Pendulum  Spring.  280 

object  of  the  compensation  pendulum  is  to  meet  tlie  error  arising  from 
change  of  temperature  by  keeping  the  distance  between  the  point  of  sus- 
pension and  the  center  of  oscillation  constant. 

Barometric  Error.  With  a  decrease  in  the  pressure  of  the  air,  and 
consequent  fall  of  the  barometer,  the  pendulum  increases  its  arc  of 
vibration;  with  an  increase  in  the  pressure  of  the  air,  and  consequent 
rise  of  the  barometer,  the  pendulum  diminishes  its  arc  of  vibration.  In 
the  Westminister  clock  the  pendulnm  vibrates  2.75°  on  each  side  of  zero, 
and  Sir  Edmund  Beckett  pointed  oat  that  with  this  large  arc  the  circular 
error  just  compensates  for  the  barometric  error.  Where  the  escapement 
is  suitable,  this  is  doubtless  the  best  way  of  neutralizing  the  barometric 
error;  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  dead-beat,  for  extra  run  on  the  dead 
faces  of  the  pallets  or  larger  angle  of  impulse  than  usual  is  found  to  be 
detrimental,  as  the  oil  thickens. 

Rolling  or  Wobbling.  The  path  of  a  pendulum  in  plan  should  oe  a 
straight  line.  Any  deviation  from  this  will  affect  the  regularity  of  its 
timekeeping.  A  want  of  squareness  in  the  chops,  or  a  twist  in  the  sus- 
pension spring,  will  often  cause  rolling  or  wobbling.  Many  clockmakers 
fix  the  lower  end  of  the  spring  with  but  one  screw,  so  that  the  pendulum 
may  hang  plumb  without  danger  of  binding.  If  the  pallet  staff  is  not 
perfectly  at  right  angles  to  the  path  of  the  pendulum,  rolling  may  be 
caused  by  the  oblique  action  of  the  crutch.  This  shows  the  necessity  of 
care  in  adjusting  the  movement  on  the  seat  board  in  cased  clocks,  and  is 
an  argument  in  favor  of  attaching  the  pendulum  of  a  turret  clock  to  the 
frame  of  the  movement,  instead  of  to  a  separate  wall  bracket. 

PENDULUM  SPRING.  The  ribbon  or  ribbons  of  steel  used  in 
suspending  the  pendulum. 

PERRON,  M.  A  celebrated  French  watchmaker  and  author.  Born 
at  Besancon,  in  1779. 

PILLAR.  Posts  of  brass  used  to  keep  the  plates  of  a  watch  in  posi- 
tion. 

PILLAR  P;-ATE.  The  plate  of  a  watch  to  which  the  pillars  are 
attached. 

PINION.  The  smaller  of  two  toothed  wheels  which  are  geared  into 
one  another.     The  tooth  of  a  pinion  is  called  a  pinion  leaf. 

Pinion  Grinder  and  Polisher.  The  ends  of  the  leaves  of  pinions, 
when  ground  flat  and  polished,  add  very  much  to  the  beauty  of  a  job 
when  completed.     Proceed  to  turn  down  your  pinion  in  the  lathe  and  fit 


287  Pin  Pallet  Escapement. 

it  in  the  usual  manner,  ready  for  finishing.  Now  select  a  suitable 
chuck  to  hold  the  pinion  in  the  lathe,  and  take  a  few  copper  cartridge 
shells,  used  in  23  or  32  caliber  revolvers, and  drill  four  holes  in  the  end 
to  fit  the  staff  of  the  pinion  you  wish  to  polish.  Fit  a  piece  of  wood 
about  three  inches  long  in  the  open  end  of  the  cartridge  shells  to  use 
as  a  handle;  do  not  allow  the  handle  to  enter  the  shell  over  one-fourth 
of  an  inch,  so  that  it  will  not  strike  against  the  pivot  of  the  pinion 
while  polishing.  Now  file  flat  the  closed  end  of  the  cartridge,  and 
your  grinding  and  polishing  tool  is  completed.  Insert  the  pinion  in 
one  of  the  holes  of  the  shell  so  that  the  flat  surface  of  the  shell  will 
come  up  squarely  against  the  face  of  the  leaves  of  the  pinion.  Apply 
a  paste  made  of  emery  flower  and  sweet  oil,  and  run  the  lathe  at  a 
high  speed,  pressing  slightly  against  the  pinion  leaves.  Transfer 
from  one  hole  to  another,  to  insure  flatness.  Clean  off  the  pinion  with 
benzine  and  examine  to  see  if  the  marks  of  the  turning  tool  are  all 
out.  If  not,  proceed  as  before.  Take  another  shell  prepared  in  like 
manner,  and  use  crocus  and  oil-  instead  of  emery,  and  grind  out  the 
scratches  of  the  emery.  After  removing  these,  wash  thoroughly  in 
benzine,  and  with  another  copper  shell  proceed  to  polish,  using  a  paste 
of  diamantine  and  oil  or  alcohol.  A  good  polish  will  soon  appear. 
Care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  work  is  thoroughly  cleaned 
after  each  process.  The  shells  can  then  be  Idd  away  in  separate 
boxes  for  future  use.  During  leisure  :noments  you  can  prepare  a 
number  of  the  shells  to  fit  almost  any  job,  and  you  will  find  them  very 
handy  for  many  purposes. 

PIN  PALLET  ESCAPEMENT.     This  escapement  is  not  often 

met  with  except  in  French  clocks,  and  the  escapement  is  generally 
exported.  It  is  difficult  to  keep  the  oil  on  the  pallets,  and  for  other 
reasons  it  is  not  a  favorite  escapement  either  with  English  or  Ameri- 
can watchmakers. 

PIN  VISE.     An  improved  form  of  pin  vise  is  that  shown  in  Fig. 
250,  manufactured  by  A.  J.  Logan.     It  is  hollow  throughout  its  entire 


Fig.  2o(J. 

length  and  closes  together,  the  same  as  a  chuck  on  the  American 
lalhe.  It  will  hold  a  small  drill  or  wire  perfectly  true  and  will  be 
found  very  useful  for  many  purposes. 

PIN  WHEEL  ESCAPEMENT.  An  escapement  for  clocks 
which  is  now  rarely  used.  It  was  invented  by  Lepaute  about  1753. 
It  is  open  to  the  same  objections  that  the  pin  pallet  is,  it  being  very 
difficult  to  keep  the  pins  oiled. 


Pivot.  288 

PIVOT.  The  end  of  an  arbor  or  shaft  that  rests  in  a  support  or 
bearing. 

Length  of  Balance  Pivots.  Saunier  recommends  the  removal  of 
the  endstone  to  see  that  the  pivot  projects  enough  beyond  the  pivot 
hole  when  the  plate  is  inverted.  Remove  the  cock  and  detach  it  from 
the  balance.  Take  off  the  balance  spring  with  its  collet  from  the  lat- 
ter and  place  it  on  the  cock  inverted,  so  as  to  see  whether  the  cock  is 
central  when  the  outer  coil  is  midway  between  the  curb  pins.  Remove 
the  cock  endstone  and  endstone  cap,  place  the  top  balance  pivot  in 
its  hole  and  see  that  it  projects  a  little  beyond  the  pivot  hole.  Place 
the  balance  in  the  calipers  to  test  its  truth,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
see  that  it  is  in  poise.  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  bal- 
ance is  sometimes  put  out  of  poise  intentionally.  See  Poising  the 
Balance. 

The  Play  of  Pivots.  Saunier  gives  the  following  rules  for  the 
play  of  escapement  pivots:  In  the  cylinder  escapement,  about  one- 
sixth  the  diameter  of  the  pivot;  in  the  duplex  escapement,  about  one- 
tenth  the  diameter  of  the  pivot;  in  the  lever  escapement,  about  one- 
eighth  the  diameter  of  the  pivot.  A  large  hole  causes  the  pitching  of 
the  depths  to  vary  with  position,  and  a  deficient  play  renders  the 
escapement  more  sensitive  to  thickening  of  the  oil.  There  is  less  in- 
convenience when  the  play  is  somewhat  in  excess  than  when  it  is  defi- 
cient. In  determining  the  play  of  train  wheel  pivots,  proceed  as  fol- 
lows: Allow  the  train  to  run  down,  and  if  it  does  so  noisily,  or  by 
jerks,  it  may  be  assumed  that  some  of  the  depths  are  bad,  in  conse- 
quence either  of  the  teeth  being  badly  formed,  or  the  holes  too  large, 
etc.  To  test  the  latter  point,  cause  the  wheels  to  revolve  alternately 
in  opposite  directions  by  applying  a  finger  to  the  barrel  or  center 
wheel  teeth,  at  the  same  time  noting  the  movement  of  each  pivot  m 
turn,  in  its  hole.  A  little  practice  will  soon  enable  the  workman  to 
judge  whether  the  play  is  correct.  The  running  down  oi  the  train 
will  also  indicate  whether  any  pivots  are  bent.  It  is  important  that 
the  center  pivots  project  beyond  the  holes  in  the  plate  and  bridge. 

Shape  of  Pivots.  Pivots  must  be  hard,  round  and  well  polished; 
their  shoulders  are  to  be  flat,  not  too  large,  with  ends  well  rounded  ofif, 
so  that  they  do  not  wear  the  cap  jewel.  The  jev/el  holes  must  be  round, 
smooth  and  not  larger  than  is  requisite  for  the  free  motion  of  the  pivot 
which  is  surrounded  with  oil.  Their  sides  must  be  parallel  to  those  of 
the  pivots,  so  that  they  sustain  pressure  of  pivot  equally  at  all  points 
of  their  length.  The  holes,  if  of  brass  or  gold,  must  have  been  ham- 
mered sufficiently  hard,  so  that  the  pores  of  the  metal  are  closed  to 
prevent  too  rapid  wear.    It  is  well  if  the  oil  sinks  are  of  a  size  that  will 


289 


Pivot  Gauge. 


accommodate  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oil,  which,  if  too  little,  would 
soon  dry  out  or  become  thickened  with  the  worn  off  particles  of  the 
metal.  The  under-turnings  of  the  pinion  leaves  are  conical,  but  in  such 
a  way  that  the  thicker  part  be  nearest  to  the  pivot,  because  by  this 
disposition  the  oil  is  retained  at  the  pivot  by  attraction,  and  does  not 
seek  to  spread  into  the  pinion  leaves,  as  is  often  the  case,  especially 
with  flat  watches,  in  which  this  provision  is  frequently  slighted. 

PIVOT  GAUGE.  A  steel  plate  with  tapered  slit  for  measuring 
the  diameter  of  pivots. 

PIVOT  POLISHER.  The  pivot  polisher  is  used  for  grinding  and 
polishing  conical  and  straight  pivots  and  shoulders.  It  is  also  useful 
for  drilling,  polishing  or  snailing  steel  wheels,  milling  out  odd  places 
in  plate  or  bridge,  where  only  part  of  a  circle  is  to  be  removed,  etc. 
The  base  being  graduated  to  degrees,  it  can  be  set  at  any  angle. 
The  spindle  has  a  taper  hole 
for  drill  chucks,  which  makes 
the  fixture  very  useful  for 
drilling  either  in  the  center  or 
eccentric,  and  by  using  the 
graduations  on  the  pulley  of 
the  head-stock  an  accurately 
spaced  circle  of  holes  may  be 
drilled.  Fig.  251  is  the  Amer- 
ican Watch  Tool  Company's  ^^'  ^^^' 
polisher;  Fig.  252,  the  Mosely,  and  Fig.  253,  the  Rivett  pattern. 

The  polisher  is  used  as  follows:  After  the  pivot  is  turned  to  proper 
shape,  put  on  your  polisher  (spindle  parallel  with  lathe  bed),  with  lap 
back  of  pivot.  Use  cast  iron  lap  first.  (Square  corners  for  square  shoul- 
ders, and  round  corners  for  conical.)    Lap  for  conical  shoulder  can  be 

readily  cornered  with  a  fine  file, 
and  cross-grind  with  fine  oil- 
stone to  remove  any  lines  made 
by  graver.  Lines  on  end  can  be 
removed  same  way,  or  in  fingers 
rubbed  on  piece  of  ground  glass 
which  has  on  it  a  paste  of  oil- 
stone and  oil  well  mixed. 

This  will  rapidly  bring  them 
up  to  a  sharp  corner  nicer  than 
by  the  graver.  On  the  iron  laps 
use  No.  I  crocus  or  very  fine  oilstone  powder,  well  ground  down  in  oil 
to  a  paste.  When  roughed  out  to  your  liking,  wipe  off  the  crocus,  and 
with  a  little  oil  touch  the  pivot  gently;  repeat  the  second  time.    Then 


Pivot  Polisher. 


390 


change  lap  for  one  of  box-wood,  and  use  crocus  No.  4,  very  fine  and 
ground  down  to  paste.  Proceed  as  with  first  lap,  being  careful  at  all 
times  to  keep  the  lap  properly  oiled  and  not  pressed  too  hard  against 


Fig.  263. 


the  work,  particularly  in  the  last  operation.  Also  be  sparing  of  your 
grinding  or  polishing  material.  About  three  specks  of  polish  with 
point  of  small  knife  is  sufficient.    Bring  the  lap  up  carefully  against 


B'ig.  254. 

the  work  until  spread  all  the  way  around,  then  proceed,  bearing  in 
mind  that  grinding  is  not  polishing,  and  that  to  polish  nicely  the  work 
and  lap  must  be  very  nearly  the  right  shape.    To  tho'-oughly  clean  the 

laps,  dip  in  benzine. 

Fig.  254  illustrates  the  Johanson  pol- 
isher, which  is  one  of  the  latest  on  the 
market.  Fig.  255  shows  a  front  view 
of  the  same  machine.  It  consists  of  a 
shaft  mounted  in  nicely  fitted  boxes, 
adapted  to  give  a  lateral  motion,  which 
is  controlled  by  set  collars  on  the  shaft 
as  shown.  The  front  end  of  the  shaft 
Fig.  255.  is  bored  to  receive  the  tapers  of  the 


291 


Pivot  Polisher. 


cutting  tools,  and  also  with  an  outside  taper  to  hold  the  laps,  the  laps 
and  cutters  being  shown  at  Fig.  256,  while  the  other  end  has  a  knob  to 
enable  the  fingers  to  control  the  lateral  motion  of  the  shaft  as  desired. 
Pulleys  of  hard  rubber  are  fixed  upon  the  shaft  and  two  idlers  are 


Fig.  256. 

mounted  on  a  vertical  stud  at  the  rear.  The  boxes  which  carry  the 
shaft  are  swiveled  upon  two  screws  in  the  base  plate  and  are  con- 
trolled by  a  lever,  as  shown  in  Fig.  255,  or  they  may  be  held  rigidly  in 
position  by  a  set  screw  shown  under  the  lever.     This  constitutes  the 


Fig.  237. 

tool  proper.  When  it  is  to  be  used  in  the  hand  rest,  a  stud,  shown  in 
Fig.  255,  is  screwed  into  the  base  plate  and  supports  the  tool  in  the 
hand  rest,  so  as  to  be  readily  adjustable  in  any  direction.  When  used 
in  the  slide  rest,  this  stud  is  removed  and  the  plate  clamped  between 


Pivoted  Detent.  293 

two  hollow  cylindrical  supports  by  a  stud  which  is  slipped  into  the 
groove  of  the  slide  rest  and  fastened  by  a  nut  at  the  top,  the  whole 
forming  a  turret-like  mount  of  great  strength,  as  shown  in  Fig.  254,  and 
upon  which  the  machine  can  be  readily  swiveled  in  any  direction. 

Other  cutters  and  laps  may,  of  course,  be  used  with  the  machine, 
so  that  it  is  capable  of  a  wide  range  of  work. 

Fig.  257  illustrates  the  Hardinge  pattern,  which  is  a  hand  polisher. 
It  is  attached  to  the  lathe  bed  the  same  as  the  T  or  hand  rest,  Grind- 
ing and  polishing  slips  are  furnished  with  this  machine,  which  is  very 
simple  and  inexpensive. 

PI  VOTE  D  DETENT.  A  detent  which  is  mounted  upon  a  pivoted 
arbor  around  which  is  a  small  spiral  spring  which  causes  it  to  return 
to  the  locking  position. 

PLATE.  In  a  watch  or  clock  the  plates  form  the  framework  of 
the  movement  and  in  which  the  holes  for  the  pivots  of  the  train  run. 
The  plate  in  which  the  pillars  are  fastened  permanently  is  called  the 
lower  or  pillar  plate,  while  the  removable  one  is  called  the  top  plate. 
Watches  are  known  as  half,  three-quarter  and  full-plate  watches, 
according  as  the  top-plate  covers  half,  three-quarters  or  all  of  the 
lower  or  pillar  plate.  In  the  full-plate  model  the  balance  is  mounted 
on  the  upper  side  of  the  top  plate,  while  in  the  half  and  three-quar- 
ter plate  it  is  mounted  upon  the  pillar  plate,  thus  making  a  thinner 
movement. 

POISING  TOOLo  A  tool  consisting  of  two  parallel  jaws  mounted 
upon  a  base  in  such  a  way  that  they  may  be  opened  or  closed  to  suit 
the  length  of  the  arbor  of  the  piece  to  be  poised.  When  using  the 
tool  it  must  be  perfectly  level. 

POLISHINGo  See  Cleansing,  Pickling  and  Polishing.  For  pol- 
ishing of  steel,  pivots,  etc.    See  Steel,  Pivots,  etc. 

POOLE,  JOHN.  An  English  chronometer  maker  of  considerable 
faftie  and  the  inventor  of  the  auxiliary  compensation  which  bears  his 
name.    He  was  born  in  1818  and  died  in  1867. 

POTENCE.  A  bracket  used  for  supporting  the  lower  end  of  the 
balance  staff  in  full  plate  watches. 

POTENTIAL  ENERGY.  Ability  to  develop  power.  A  weight 
or  spring  when  wound  possesses  potential  energy  or  power  to  do 
work.  The  force  multiplied  by  the  distance  through  which  it  can 
pass  is  the  amount  of  potential  energy  possessed. 


393  Pump  Center. 

PUMP  CENTER.  The  small,  pointed  steel  shaft  in  the  center 
of  a  universal  head,  which  is  used  for  centering  the  work. 

PUSH  PIECE.  The  movable  part  of  a  pendant  used  for  opening 
the  case.  The  small  movable  projection  on  the  side  of  a  case  which 
is  pushed  in  when  setting  the  hands. 

QUARE,  DANIEL.  Born  in  1632  and  died  in  1724.  He  was  the 
first  to  apply  the  concentric  minute  hand  to  watches  and  clocks  and 
was  the  inventor  of  the  repeating  watch. 

QUARTER  RACK.  The  rack  in  a  watch  or  clock  which  strikes 
the  quarters. 

QUARTER  SCREWS.  The  four  timing  screws  in  a  compensa- 
tion balance. 

RACK  LEVER.  A  watch  escapement,  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Abbe  Hautefeuille  in  1734.  The  lever  terminated  in  a  rack,  which 
worked  into  a  pinion  on  the  balance  staff. 

RAMSAY,  DAVID.  Clockmaker  to  James  I,  and  the  first  master 
of  the  Clockmakers'  Company.     He  died  in  1655. 

RATCHET.  A  small  lever  working  freely  upon  an  arbor  which 
engages  the  teeth  of  the  ratchet-wheel  and  prevents  it  from  turning 
backward. 

RATCHET  SPRING.     The  spring  which  actuates  the  ratchet. 

RATCHET  WHEEL.  A  wheel  having  sharp  angular  teeth  into 
which  the  ratchet  engages  to  prevent  the-  arbor  upon  which  it  is 
mounted  from  turning  backward. 

RATING  NUT.  A  nut  placed  upon  the  pendulum  rod  to  com- 
plete the  timing  or  compensation, 

RAYMOND,  B,  W.  A  Chicago  capitalist  and  the  first  president 
of  the  Elgin  National  Watch  Company.  The  first  movement  turned 
out  from  the  factory,  April  i,  1867,  was  named  the  B.  W.  Raymond^ 
in  his  honor.  This  movement  was  a  success  from  the  start  and  has 
done  much  toward  establishing  the  reputation  of  the  Elgin  Company. 
Mr.  Raymond  died  April  5,  1883. 


Recoil  Escapement. 


294 


RECOIL  ESCAPEMENT.  An  escapement  in  which  the  teeth 
are  pressed  backward,  or  recoiled  by  the  pallets,  after  coming  to  rest, 
as  in  the  Anchor  Escapement. 

RED  STUFF.  Sesquioxide  of  iron,  used  for  polishing  brass  and 
steel  by  mixing  with  oil.  Crocus,  rouge  and  clinker  are  various  grades 
of  red  stuff. 

REGNAULD.  One  of  the  first  French  clockmakers  who  attempted 
to  compensate  a  clock  against  the  effects  of  heat  and  cold. 

REGULATOR.  The  small  steel  hand  or  lever  to  the  shorter  end 
of  which  the  curb  pins  are  attached,  and  which  by  moving  from  side 
to  side  practically  shortens  the  hairspring.    (See  Ctirb  Pins.) 

2.  A  standard  clock  having  a  compensating  pendulum  and  used 
for  timing  watches  and  clocks. 

REID,  THOMAS.  Born  in  1750  and  died  in  1834.  He  was  a  cele- 
brated Scotch  horologist  and  the  author  of  a  treaties  on  watch  and 
clockmaking. 

REMONTOIRE.  A  kind  of  escapement  in  timepieces,  in  which 
the  impulse  is  given  to  the  pendulum  or  balance  by  a  special  con- 
trivance upon  which  the  train  or  wheel  work  acts,  instead  of  com- 
municating directly  with  the  pendulum  or  balance. —  Webster. 

REPAIR  CLAMPS.  The  magic  repair  clamps  shown  in  Figs. 
258  to  260,  are  used  for  holding  various  kinds  of  work  in  position, 


Fig.  258. 


Fig.  259. 


while  repairing,  soldering,  etc.  In  addition  to  the  uses  shown  in  the 
illustrations,  it  is  also  applicable  for  dozens  of  operations  that  will 
suggest  themselves  to  the  possessor. 


295  Repeater. 

It  is  so  arranged  that  the  end  screws  can  be  used  as  feet  and  the 

handles  as  a  support  (as  shown  in  the  illustrations),  so  that  the  tool 
with  the  work  in  it  will  stand  up,  leaving  the  operator  free  to  use  char- 


Fig.  260. 

coal  or  asbestos  block  with  one  hand  and  the  blow  pipe  with  the  other. 
It  is  especially  valuable  for  holding  dials,  when  soldering  on  feet. 

REPEATER.  A  watch  which  indicates  the  time  by  repeating  it 
by  means  of  gongs  or  bells.  There  are  hour,  quarter,  half-quarter, 
five  minute,  and  minute  repeaters.  They  were  first  made  about  1676, 
and  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Edward  Barlow,  a  clergyman. 
About  the  same  time  Daniel  Quare,  a  watchmaker  of  London,  was 
working  on  a  model  of  a  repeatmg  watch.  Barlow  applied  for  a  pat- 
ent on  his  invention  and  Quare,  hearing  of  it,  determined  to  resist  him, 
and  succeeded  in  getting  the  backing  of  the  Ciockmakers'  Company, 
who  petitioned  the  king  not  to  make  the  grant  until  the  council  could 
see  and  examine  Quare's  watch.  The  council  investigated  both 
watches  and  finally  decided  in  favor  of  Quare,  his  watch  having  but 
one  push  piece,  while  in  Barlow's  there  were  two.  The  principle  of 
all  repeating  watches  is  the  same,  though  some  arrange  the  parts 
somewhat  differently. 

Repairing  Repeating  Watches.  We  will  review  the  various 
kinds  of  repeaters  we  have  met  with,  commencing  with  the  simplest 
type,  viz.,  the  modern  quarter  repeater.  Of  these,  we  will  call  atten- 
tion to  two  varieties.  The  first  of  these  differs  only  slightly  in  con- 
struction from  the  other  in  one  or  two  points,  which  are  as  follows: 


Repeater.  2M 

The  running  train  of  one  ends  with  a  pinion,  which  has  sometimes 
mounted  on  its  arbor  a  collet  of  brass  to  act  as  a  fly  in  a  clock  (but 
often  without  this  controlling  medium),  but  always  having  a  mov- 
able plug  in  the  top-plate  into  which  the  pivot  works,  and  which  is 
used  to  regulate  the  speed  of  striking,  by  adjusting  to  the  requisite 
position,  being  the  same  method  as  applied  to  an  ordinary  French  strik- 
ing clock.  The  second  variety  has  the  running  train  terminating  with 
a  pair  of  pallets,  through  which  the  escape  wheels  run  freely,  being 
controlled  in  speed  by  a  banking  piece  attached  to  the  pallet  staff, 
and  banking  on  a  pin  placed  in  an  upright  stud  in  the  pillar-plate, 
which  stud  can  be  adjusted  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  the 
movable  plug  in  the  previous  case. 

The  former  style  of  terminating  the  running  train  is  found  in  earlier 
specimens,  and  is  the  only  method  used  in  English-made  repeaters, 
while  both  methods  have  been  used  in  foreign  watches,  though  we 
think  the  former  will  most  generally  recommend  itself,  owing  to  the 
unpleasant  noise  caused  in  the  running  of  the  latter  type. 

The  most  simple  and  easy  of  readjustment  is  undoubtedly  the 
Swiss  type  or  bar  movement,  rendering  it  possible  to  take  out  either 
the  whole  or  a  portion  only  of  the  repeating  work,  in  case  of  some 
slight  correction  being  requisite,  or  to  apply  a  new  mainspring,  either 
to  the  going  or  repeating  train,  as  may  be  required,  without  necessi- 
tating the  taking  of  the  entire  watch  to  pieces  (which  is  inevitable  in 
the  old  type  of  both  English  and  French  watches.) 

We  think  we  do  not  exaggerate  in  saying  that  far  less  difficulty  in 
readjusting  complicated  watches  and  putting  together  after  cleaning, 
would  be  experienced,  if  workmen  would  make  it  a  rule  to  observe 
more  care  in  taking  td  pieces,  and  note  any  little  fault,  rather  than 
rush  the  watch  to  pieces,  and  trust  to  chance  that,  after  doing  the 
cleaning,  it  would  go  together  and  be  right,  as  a  matter  of  course,  as 
a  little  extra  care  in  this  way  is  really  time  saved.  One  thing  we 
would  try  to  impress  upon  all  is  to  exercise  special  care  not  to  bend 
or  burr  the  pivots  or  teeth,  or  burr  the  pivot  holes,  as  this  is  easily 
done  in  a  desire  to  complete  the  work  in  hand,  and  often  causes  much 
vexation  and  loss  of  time  and  temper,  when  a  very  different  result 
"can  be  attained  with  ordinary  care  and  forethought.  For  instance, 
the  careless  mixing  of  the  screws  belonging  to  the  various  portions 
of  the  work  is  a  thing  to  be  particularly  avoided;  this  may  appear  to 
be  a  trivial  matter,  but  experience  has  taught  us  that  it  is  a  very 
serious  one.  It  has  been  our  lot  to  take  up  work,  previously  com- 
menced by  others,  and  either  through  their  incompetency  or  careless- 
ness, our  lot  has  been  rendered  anything  but  a  happy  one;  even  the 
simple  task  of  taking  the  movement  roughly  or  thoughtlessly  out  of 
its  case,  thereby  distorting  the  gongs,  will  cause  one  sometimes  to 
waste  hours  on  readjusting,  where  a  few  minutes  extra  spent  in  the 


2d7  Repeater. 

first  instance  would  have  obviated  this  trouble  entirely.  Of  course, 
in  the  Swiss  style  of  repeater,  where  the  gongs  can  be  easily  removed 
from  the  watch  before  taking  the  movement  out  of  the  case,  there  is 
no  reason  why  they  should  receive  the  slightest  injury,  but  in  this  it 
is  quite  likely  that  your  screws  becoming  mixed  would  cause  great 
trouble  and  loss  of  time  and  worry,  as  the  result  of  a  little  want  of  care 
and  forethought.  We  would  also  impress  upon  each  the  necessity  to  be 
sure  that  none  of  the  numerous  studs  which  carry  the  repeating  work 
are  cither  bent  during  cleaning,  or  left  with  the  dirty,  thick  oil  adher- 
ing, and  also  that  they  are  not  loosened  in  the  process. 

We  will  now  pass  on  to  note  points  of  difficulty  arising  through 
ordinary  wear  and  tear„  such  as,  for  instance,  the  enlargement  of  the 
pivot  holes  of  the  hammers  and  of  repeating  barrel  arbor  holes, 
wliereby  slight  inaccuracies  will  be  caused  in  the  repeating  of  the 
hours,  etc.,  aggravated  by  additional  wear  having  taken  place  at  the 
points  of  action  of  the  star  wheel  (to  which  is  attached  the  hour  snail), 
causing  wrong  numbers  to  be  struck;  though,  perhaps,  it  is  hardly 
fr,ir  to  attribute  these  faults  to  wear  alone,  as  they  are  often  caused,  or 
nt  least  intensified,  by  the  stupidity  of  some  previous  operator  in 
making  alterations  (for  what  reason  is  more  often  than  not  a  mystery). 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  find  the  star  with  the  teeth  (or  points) 
bent,  some  in  one  direction  and  some  in  another.  When  this  is  the 
case,  the  hitch  will  generally  !Se  found,  on  testing,  that  some  of  the 
hours  are  not  giving  the  correct  number.  The  plan  wc  adopt  is  to  at 
once  set  them  upright,  and  with  few  exceptions,  obtain  the  result 
desired. 

In  many  of  the  older  types  of  repeaters,  the  hour  rack  (or  ratchet) 
is  in  a  piece  with  the  barrel  arbor  and  consequently  between  the 
frames,  as  is  likewise  the  pallet  attached  to  raise  the  hammer  for  the 
hours.  We  therefore  must  observe  great  care  in  putting  together^  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  again  removing  the  plates.  As  this  entails 
much  extra  work  and  loss  of  time,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  pay 
especial  attention  to  see  that  we  have  the  pallet  aforesaid  in  its 
proper  position  on  the  hammer  arbor,  and  also  to  be  sure  that  the 
mainspring  hooks  in  both  going  and  repeating  barrels  are  properly 
adjusted,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  slipping  from  their  anchorage  at 
an  inopportune  moment.  This,  of  course,  will  happen  at  times  with 
even  the  best  regulated  workmen,  but  a  little  attention  to  these  points 
at  this  stage  will  prove  very  valuable  in  the  result,  as  to  have  to  pull 
your  work  apart  again  means  spoiling  it  in  appearance  in  point  of 
freshness,  as  the  oil  gets  spread  about,  besides  picking  up  particles  of 
dirt,  which  means  brushing  out  again,  at  least  some  of  the  work. 

We  will  now  consider  screws,  badly  fitting,  or  with  an  inclination  to 
overturn.  Do  not  attempt  any  tinkering  with  them,  but  proceed  to 
fit  a  new  one  at  once,  even  if  you  have  to  resort  to  making  a  tap  for 


Repeater.  298 

the  purpose,  and  turning  down  a  piece  of  steel  for  a  screw;  you  gain 
the  desired  end  in  a  workmanlike  manner.  And  in  performing  so 
apparently  simple  a  thing  as  fitting  a  new  screw,  be  careful  to  remove 
any  burr  caused  by  re-tapping  the  plate,  as  to  have  a  spring  or  other 
portion  of  work  displaced  through  negligence  of  this  kind  does  not 
give  your  watch  a  fair  chance  of  performing  properly;  also  observe 
that  all  steady  pins  (in  springs,  etc.,)  are  secure  and  doing  their  allot- 
ted work. 

Another  very  important  point  is  to  utilize  the  full  length  of  repeat- 
ing mainspring  in  a  judicious  manner  by  setting  up  as  fully  as  possi- 
ble (without,  of  course,  making  it  strain  on  the  hook  at  top),  thus 
giving  equal  power  all  through  the  striking,  or  often  you  will  find  the 
quarters  dragging  slowly  to  a  finish;  and  if  this  is  so  when  the  watch 
is  fresh  oiled,  what  will  it  be  in  six  months  after?  This  applies,  of 
course,  with  greater  force  to  the  minute  repeater,  which  has  more  to 
accomplish.  Another  plan  we  always  adopt  is  to  just  run  our  eye 
over  every  separate  piece  to  make  sure  each  wheel  is  secure  on  its 
pinion,  as  it  often  happens  that  in  brushing  out  they  get  loosened,  or  a 
bristle  gets  broken  from  the  brush  and  sticks  in  a  tooth  or  under  a 
stud  or  other  crevice,  causing  great  annoyance  if  not  observed  at 
once. 

Other  points  to  note  and  carefully  readjust  are  the  main  wheel  of 
repeating  train,  to  see  that  it  revolves  freely  on  the  arbor,  as  in  draw- 
ing the  slide  to  repeat,  it  is  important  that  it  should  remove  smoothly 
without  jerking;  the  same  applies  in  respect  to  the  slide-work  in  the 
case,  which  is  often  choked  with  dirt,  and  (where  there  is  no  spring  to 
throw  back)  either  slide  or  rack  causes  great  impediment  in  striking. 
And,  again,  in  this  connection  observe  care  in  cleaning  the  case,  that 
no  damage  is  done  to  groove  in  which  slide  acts,  as  the  slightest 
bruise  on  the  edges  may  prove  a  great  puzzle.  Be  sure  also  that  the 
star  wheel  shifts  freely  and  does  its  work  in  a  decisive  manner,  as 
likewise  the  loose  piece  on  quarter  snail,  which  is  moved  by  flirting 
of  star  wheel,  and  which,  acting  properly,  gives  (at  the  hour)  the  hour 
only.  See  also  that  the  quarter  snail  is  not  loose,  but  firmly  riveted 
to  canon  pinion,  and  running  perfectly  flat  to  insure  rack-tail  falling 
securely,  as  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  space  at  command  as 
a  rule  is  very  limited,  more  particularly  in  the  modern  watches,  and 
notably  in  minute  repeaters.  One  very  important  item  is  the  set  ar- 
bor, to  mind  that  it  acts  smoothly  and  yet  firmly,  not  loose  in  one 
place  and  tight  in  another.  This  applies  to  both  the  watch  with  hol- 
low center  pinion,  with  loose  set  arbor,  or  to  solid  pinion  on  which  ca- 
non revolves.  This  is  one  of  the  points,  even  in  the  ordinary  plain 
watch,  which  receives  most  unmerciful  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
botch,  and  yet  is  of  the  utmost  moment  to  the  good  and  correct  per- 
formance of  every  watch,  and  especially  the  repeater. 


299  Repeater. 

Instead  of  such  reprehensible  methods  as  are  so  often  resorted  to 
— viz,  the  rough  and  ready  use  of  nippers  or  graver  to  burr  the  arbor, 
or,  as  one  frequently  sees,  the  flattening  even  by  the  use  of  the  ham- 
mer— the  best  plan,  and  one  sure  to  give  satisfaction,  if  tried,  is  to 
first  remove  the  burrs  by  revolving  the  arbor  in  the  lathe,  using  a 
polisher  charged  with  oilstone  dust.  Having  done  this,  lay  the  arbor  on 
a  brass  stake,  and  with  a  fine  sharp  pointed  center  punch  raise  a  swell- 
ing on  it  at  the  spot  which  will  be  nearest  to  the  middle,  so  giving  a 
firm  and  yet  smooth  action;  at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  that  it  does  not  work  too  tightly,  or  there  is  danger  of  back- 
ing the  escapement  in  reversing  the  hands.  One  type  of  repeater 
seldom  met  with  is  the  five-minute  repeater,  that  is,  one  which,  after 
giving  the  hour  in  the  usual  way,  gives  one  stroke  for  each  five  min- 
utes recorded  by  the  hands,  so  that,  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  say 
the  watch  shows  by  the  dial  five  minutes  and  less  than  ten  minutes 
past  the  hour,  viz.,  nine  minutes  past  three,  you  would,  on  repeating, 
get  first  the  hour,  three  strokes,  and  then  one  stroke,  and  at  ten  min- 
utes past  you  would  get  two  strokes,  and  so  on,  an  additional  stroke 
for  every  five  minutes  up  to  within  a  fraction  of  the  next  hour,  when 
you  would  get  eleven  strokes,  when,  immediately  on  completion  of 
the  next  hour,  you  would  get  four  strokes,  viz.,  four  o'clock.  This,  to 
our  mind,  is  of  greater  utility  than  either  the  quarter  or  half  quarter 
repeater,  and  far  less  complicated  and  certainly  less  costly  to  pro- 
duce than  any  other  type,  and  serves  every  purpose  for  which  a 
repeater  is  required,  as  to  be  able  to  ascertain  the  time  in  the  dark 
within  five  minutes  is  assuredly  near  enough  for  any  one.  To  arrive 
at  this  you  have  the  ordinary  hour  snail  afifixed  to  star  wheel,  and  in 
place  of  the  usual  quarter  snail  on  center  arbor  there  is  one  with 
eleven  divisions  and  a  rack  with  the  same  number  of  teeth  to  give 
the  strokes  one  to  eleven  as  required. 

We  have  known  several  instances  of  workmen  and  others  who, 
coming  across  one  of  these  for  the  first  time,  have  imagined  (and  not 
unnaturally)  that  they  were  in  possession  of  a  minute  repeater,  which 
was  giving  the  hours  and  minutes  while  the  quarters  were  failing  to 
act,  but  on  removing  the  dial  were  agreeably  surprised,  besides  gain- 
ing fresh  experience,  thus  showing  that  we  in  the  watch  trade  are 
always  learning.  Fig.  261  shows  the  rack  which  produces  in  turn 
both  quarters  and  half-quarters.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out 
that  the  quarters  are  produced  by  the  six  teeth  (three  each  at  opposite 
extremities),  alternately  raising  the  hammers  at  equal  intervals.  We 
will  commence  with  the  first  half  quarter.  It  will  be  seen  by  refer- 
ence to  Fig.  261,  that  there  are  apparently  three  teeth  at  one  end  and 
four  at  the  other;  this  shows  the  rack  in  position  for  giving  the  half- 
quarter  only.  The  tail  of  rack,  which  falls  upon  the  snail.  Fig.  262 
controls  this  by  allowing  it  to  fall  just  far  enough  to  pass  back  beyond 


Repeater. 


800 


the  first  pallet,  in  readiness  to  raise  the  hammer  on  its  return,  thus 
producing  one  blow  at  the  half-quarter,  whereas  on  reaching  and 
passing  the  fifteen  minutes  past,  the  four  teeth  will  only  appear  as 
three,  as  the  lower  half  of  the  rack  tail  now  falls  on  the  under  part  of 
the  snail;  this  result  being  attained  by  means  of  the  loose  shifting 
piece  attached  to  the  rack,  and  controlled  by  a  click  and  spring.  And 
in  this  shifting  piece  generally  arises  any  failing  in  the  half-quarter, 
as  should  the  said  click  spring  be  set  on  too  strong,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  not  strong  enough,  you  will  be  either  without  your  half -quarter 
or  else  get  it  when  you  should  have  the  full  quarter.  This  failure  is 
also  partly  in  consequence  of  the  spring  of  the  rack  not  being  set  on 
quite  strong  enough,  as  in  the  case  of  any  slight  impediment  the  tail 
of  the  quarter  rack  would  only  reach  the  quarter  snail  in  falling, 
instead  of  getting  underneath  it  on  to  the  half-quarter  snail;  this 
might  also  arise  in  consequence  of  excessive  endshake  of  the  center 


Fig.  262. 


Fig.  262. 


wheel,  bringing  the  canon  pinion  too  low,  which  would  complicate 
matters  further  by  causing  the  snail  to  foul  the  star  wheel.  If  these 
important  points  are  carefully  attended  to  there  will  not  be  much  fear 
of  failure,  always,  of  course  providing  there  has  not  been  any  tam- 
pering with  the  snail  or  the  rack,  or  more  especially  with  that  portion 
of  the  rack  which  controls  the  giving  or  withholding  of  the  half-quar- 
ters, as  is  unfortunately  the  case  sometimes,  though  happily  not  often. 
We  are  convinced  that  as  a  rule,  where  any  alteration  in  shape  of 
any  part  from  the  original  has  been  made  it  is  merely  experimenting, 
and  once  indulged  in  leads  to  mischief  and  utter  failure. 

In  all  our  experience  we  can  only  recall  one  instance  of  a  watch  of 
this  particular  type,  an  old  duplex  half-quarter  repeater  by  McCabe, 
which  appeared  likely  to  master  all  our  efforts  to  get  the  half  quarter 
to  act  properly,  and  though  we  felt  convinced  we  should  be  justified 
in  altering  the  shape  of  the  half-quarter  rack  at  the  point  of  contact 


801 


Repeater. 


with  the  click  which  controls  the  shifting  of  the  same,  we  were  loath 
to  do  so,  as  there  did  not  appear  to  have  been  any  serious  tampering 
with  it,  though  undoubtedly  the  shape  had  been  slightly  altered.  We 
however,  did  at  last  make  the  alteration  according  to  our  conviction 
in  the  matter,  but  not  before  we  had  given  it  every  consideration, 
and  taken  counsel  with  others,  and  were  gratified  to  find  we  obtained 
the  exact  result  required,  and  did  not  therefore,  consider  the  loss  of 
time  a  waste  of  time. 

Of  course,  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  in  watch  work,  and  the 
fault  met  with  in  the  job  today  may  not  present  itself  again  for  years. 
There  is  one  thing  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  half-quarter  repeater; 
and  that  is,  that  it  was  made  principally  in  the  good  old  times,  when 
plenty  of  time  was  devoted  to  the  work,  with  a  view  to  durability;  and 
consequently  faults  da  not  arise  as  a  rule  from  absolute  wear,  as  the 
endeavor  seemed  to  be  to  put  in  the  finest  material,  at  the  same  time 

making  it  of  the  best  possible  tem- 
per. Indeed,  this  applies  to  all  the 
old  watches  as  regards  the  quality 
and  temper  of  the  material,  as  any 
reader  is  aware  who  comes  across 
a  specimen  from  time  to  time. 
This  is,  unfortunately,  a  very  dif- 
ferent character  than  can  be  given 
in  the  majority  of  work  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  where  the  demand  is  for 
cheapness,  the  result  being  that 
you  get  the  steel  work  absolutely 
soft,  and  of  course  in  this  state  it 
is  impossible  to  impart  the  same 
amount  of  finish  to  the  work,  hence 
roughness  in  the  action  and  speedy  signs  of  wear  in  parts  of  contact. 
Fig.  263  shows  an  old  specimen  of  a  French  quarter  repeater, 
apparently  of  very  ancient  origin;  the  movement  and  dial  bear  the 
name  Chevalier  and  Compaignie.  It  has  a  verge  escapement,  and 
repeating  was  pushed  from  the  pendant  as  was  customary  with  all 
the  earlier  specimens;  it  has  also  the  chain  connection  from  the 
gathering  rack  at  pendant  passing  around  a  roller  A  near  the  edge  of 
plate,  and  attached  to  and  passing  around  a  smaller  roller  B,  on  the 
square  of  the  repeating  barrel  arbor. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  quarter  rack  is  minus  a  tooth  at  C, 
and  has  the  two  remaining  teeth  mutilated;  it  is  also  minus  one 
of  the  quarter  pallets,  and  the  hook  has  disappeared  from  the 
square  of  the  repeating  barrel  arbor  by  which  the  quarter  rack 
should  be  gathered;  all  indications  that  it  has  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  Philistines. 


Repeater.  802 

The  hour  rack  is  in  a  piece  with  the  barrel  arbor,  and  consequently 
between  the  plates  as  mentioned  in  a  previous  paragraph. 

Another  indication  of  the  antiquity  of  this  specimen  is  the  fact 
of  the  winding  or  fusee  square  coming  through  the  dial.  It  will  also 
be  observed  that  the  "all-or-nothing"  piece,  D,  is  pierced  to  admit  of 
the  fusee  square  and  key-pipe  passing  through  for  winding.  One  of 
the  greatest  difficulties  met  with  in  this  type  of  repeater  arises  in  the 
event  of  the  breaking  of  the  chain  connecting  the  gathering  rack  for 
winding  up  the  repeating  mainspring,  as  great  care  is  required  in 
repairing  the  same  to  re-adjust  to  the  proper  length  again,  and  can 
only  be  accomplished  with  great  care  and  trouble,  and  probably  with 
many  failures;  the  endeavor  should  be  to  manage  as  near  as  possible 
to  obtain  links  of  chain  to  replace  those  spoiled,  as  near  to  size  as 
you  can  to  those  remaining. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  star  wheel,  to  which  is  attached  the  hour 
snail,  is  carried  by  the  "all-or-nothing"  piece,  and  when  displaced  by 
the  gathering  rack  is  capable  of  a  small  recoil  which  releases  the 
quarter  rack;  this  is  modified  in  the  more  modern  repeater  by  the 
star  piece  revolving  on  a  stud  fixed  in  the  plate,  and  the  "  all-or-noth- 
ing "  piece  shown  here  is  replaced  by  the  j'/r/«_g'"  all-or-nothing," 
which  we  will  endeavor  to  show  and  describe,  as  also  we  will  endea- 
vor to  show  the  movement  of  a  half-quarter  repeater  from  which  the 
rack  and  snail  shown  here  in  Figs.  261  and  262  are  taken. 

The  following  figures  show  the  movement  from  which  rack  and 
snail  are  taken.  We  have  not  replaced  either  the  said  rack  or  snail, 
as  they  would  have  hidden  the  other  pieces  which  we  wish  to  draw 
special  attention  to  on  this  occasion.  Our  object  is  to  show  clearly 
firstly,  the  gathering  racky^,  and  secondly,  the  intermediate  wheel  B 
which  gears  into  the  teeth  of  former,  and  also  the  smaller  wheel  on 
square  of  repeating  barrel  arbor,  for  winding  up  repeating  main- 
spring, being  more  modern  and  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  sys- 
tem as  represented  in  the  ancient  specimen,  having  chain  connection, 
as  previously  shown.  One  point,  subject  to  injury,  (and  which 
requires  careful  treatment  to  readjust),  is  the  shoulder  screw  which 
secures  the  intermediate  wheel,  and  very  little  reflection  will  convince 
the  thoughtful  that  the  careless  fitting  of  anew  screw  here  would  soon 
lead  to  difficulty,  as  being  a  cross  or  double  depth  it  complicates  mat' 
ters  somewhat,  and  any  roughness  here  would  cause  jerking  in  gath- 
ering or  winding,  and  also  cause  strokes  of  the  hammers  to  be  given 
in  a  spasmodic  manner,  but  of  course  this  can  all  be  avoided  if  care 
is  exercised  in  retapping  plate  not  to  alter  position;  should  the 
depths,  however,  get  shifted,  the  best  plan  to  adopt  will  be  to  repitch 
them,  using  the  depth  tool  for  that  purpose.  We  should  next  like  to 
call  attention  to  the  slidework  of  above  figure,  our  reason  being  that 
having  originally  been  pushed  from  the  pendant,  the  winding  up  of 


303 


Repeater. 


repeating  is  now  done  on  the  modern  principle,  viz.,  with  the  slide 
(the  movement  having  evidently  been  put  into  a  new  case  at  the  same 
time).  Our  desire  is  to  especially  call  attention  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  conversion  has  been  accomplished,  so  as  to  enable  any 
reader  to  adopt  the  same  method  in  case  of  requirement,  as  although 
we  have  seen  several  which  have  at  some  time  been  transferred,  we 
never  saw  one  which  had  been  done  in  so  simple,  and  at  the  same 
time  so  thoroughly  workmanlike  style.  Fig.  265  is  somewhat  of  a 
snail-shaped  piece  introduced  into  the  pillar  plate  below  the  gather- 
ing rack,  and  having  a  sink  turned  to  receive  it.  It  will  be  seen  by 
referring  to  figure  of  movement,  that  we  have  pressed  arm  or  tail  of 
gathering  rack  on  to  hour  snail  in  readiness  to  be  released  for  striking 
the  hour  of  five,  this  allows  snail-shaped  piece  (Fig.  264)  to  be  readily 
seen,  showing  outside  extremity  of  same  projecting  beyond  outer 
edge  of  movement  (and  which  engages  with  slide  in  case),  while  the 

inner  point  is  engaged  in  depress- 
ing gathering  rack  at  C,  where 
pressure  originally  came  from  pen- 
dant pushpiece,  being  in  reality  the 
reverse  end  of  tail  rack  mentioned 
above,  and  being  securely  fixed  to 
same  by  means  of  screw  and  steady 
pin  on  under  side. 

The  hour  rack,  or  ratchet  D, 
being  in  this  specimen  (unlike  the 
former  one)  separate  from  the  bar- 
rel arbor,  is  seen  above  the  plate; 
screwed  on  to  it  is  a  nut  gearing 
with  intermediate  wheel  for  wind- 
ing, surmounted  by  hook  for  gathering  quarter  rack,  each  of  which 
are  fitted  on  to  square  of  barrel  arbor,  hook  and  square  being  drilled 
across  with  the  pin  passing  through  to  secure  them  in  position.  Hav- 
ing fixed  the  whole  in  readiness,  on  being  released  to  repeat  the  hour 
of  five,  as  before  mentioned,  allows  of  the  whole  twelve  teeth  of  the 
hour  rack  or  ratchet  D  to  be  clearly  seen,  with  the  pallet  engaged 
(when  released)  for  raising  hammer  to  give  the  five  strokes  required, 
and  also  gives  a  fair  view  of  the  star  wheel,  and  likewise  hour  snail, 
with  rack  tail  E  pressed  onto  the  fifth  step  or  division  of  snail.  The 
"all-or-nothing,"  being  capable  of  a  slight  recoil,  release  the  quarter 
rack,  and  after  striking  returns  into  position  and  remains  locked  un- 
til the  slide  is  again  drawn,  and  so  on  as  often  as  desired,  hence  the 
name  "Repeater^  And  now  for  a  description  of  the  more  modern 
or  spring  "all-or-nothing,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  266. 

It  differs  from  the  old  considerably  in  form,  and  as  it  undoubtedly 
is  much  less  complicated  in  construction,  we  must  admit  its  superior- 


Flg.  2i}4. 


Repeater.  304 

ity  over  the  former,  and  though  differing  in  form  the  action  is  very 
similar  The  star  wheel  and  hour  snail,  in  place  of  being  carried  by 
the  "all-or-nothing,"  is  revolving  on  a  fixed  stud  in  the  plate,  and  the 
quarter  rack  is  released  by  pressure  being  transmitted  from  arm  of 
gathering  rack  through  a  small  finger  being  driven  into  contact  with 
the  "all-or-nothing"  at  its  thickest  part  at  the  moment  of  the  slide  be- 
ing drawn  back  to  its  full  extent.  The  pressure  given  causes  the  "all- 
or-nothing"  to  give  at  its  thinnest  part  which  forms  a  spring,  hence 
the  term  spring  "all-or-nothing."  The  rack  arm  in  this  type  is  not 
made  in  a  piece  with  the  rack,  but  is  made  separate  from  it,  and  un- 
til recently  was  attached  (as  is  also  the  finger)  by  means  of  a  shoul- 
dered screw,  and  both  rack  and  arm  have  an  elongated  slot  in  them, 
thus  permitting  of  a  slight  backward  and  forward  movement  to  the 
arm,  so  that  when  the  arm  comes  in  contact  with  the  snail,  being  ca- 
pable of  this  action,  it  is  driven  backwards,  and  having  an  upright 
stud  at  the  reverse  end,  which  immediately  makes  pressure  on  the 
small  finger,  which  is  also  driven  backwards,  and  its  extreme  point 
touches  the  "all-or-nothing"  at  its  thickest  part,  causes  it  to  recoil  by 
means  of  its  spring,  thus  releasing  the  quarter  rack  in  the  same  man- 


Ch 


Fig.  265.  Fig.  266. 

ner  as  in  the  previous  case.  The  latest  method  is  to  make  the  gath- 
ering rack  and  arm  in  two  distinctly  separate  pieces,  but  both 
operating  from  a  fixed  stud  in  the  plate  and  accomplishing  the  same 
result  precisely,  and  in  a  very  similar  manner;  the  latter  type  is 
probably  the  outcome  of  necessity,  in  consequence  of  the  repeater 
being  required  to  strike  the  minutes  in  addition  to  the  hours  and 
quarters,  as  it  permits  of  the  various  parts  being  made  on  a  smaller 
:5cale,  thus  utilizing  the  room  required  for  the  increase  of  complica- 
tions. 

The  fault  we  will  first  call  attention  to  is  a  troublesome  one,  though 
fortunately  one  not  frequently  met  with;  it  is  the  two  blows  of  the 
quarters  following  each  other  so  rapidly  as  to  appear  almost  as  one 
blow. 

To  remedy  this  it  will  be  necessary  to  lengthen  the  three  teeth  of 
the  quarter  rack  which  raise  the  hammer  giving  the  last  blow  to  each 
quarter;  or  it  may  be  that  only  one  or  two  of  the  teeth  will  require 
lengthening.  This  must  be  accomplished  by  stretching,  which  can 
be  done  by  laying  the  rack  on  a  smooth  steel  stake,  having  the  under 
side  of  the  rack  uppermost;  and  by  using  a  rather  sharp   rounded 


305  Repeater. 

punch  (having  someone  to  assist  with  the  hammer),  a  very  credit.blo 
job  can  be  made  of  it;  and  as  very  little  stretching  will  probably  bj 
required,  there  need  be  no  disfigurement  of  the  rack  if  care  be  exer- 
cised. In  most  cases  there  will  be  no  fear  of  accident  either,  the 
only  chance  of  this  being  where  the  watch  is  one  of  the  good  old 
sort,  when  there  would  be  great  risk  of  breakage,  in  consequence  of 
the  high  temper  of  the  steel;  it  will  therefore  be  v/ise  to  first  test  the 
piece  to  see  whether  it  be  very  hard,  and  if  so,  the  temper  must  be 
lowered  by  bluing,  and  the  color  afterwards  removed. 

This  fault  is  generally  the  outcome  of  wear  at  the  points  of  action 
of  the  pallets  and  rack  teeth,  or  the  enlargement  of  the  holes  of  the 
hammer  pivots,  and  might  be  remedied  by  new  holes  or  new  pallets; 
but  as  the  latter  would  be  too  long  and  costly  a  process  in  ordinary 
repairing,  we  must  be  satisfied  to  resort  to  the  more  rough  and  ready 
method  mentioned,  and  stretch  the  teeth;  but  before  doing  this  it  will 
be  advisable  to  make  sure  that  the  fault  is  not  caused  by  the  stud 
which  carries  the  quarter  rack  being  loose  in  plate,  or  having  got 
bent,  thereby  throwing  the  rack  out  of  position,  as  this  of  course 


Fig.  267.  Fig.  268. 

would  create  the  fault  in  question.  It  will  be  remembered  that  we 
have  previously  called  attention  to  the  liability  of  the  studs  getting 
bent  in  the  process  of  cleaning,  or  putting  together  after  the  cleaning 
is  done,  so  that  these  points  should  be  looked  to  before  making  any 
alteration  in  the  rack  teeth. 

It  will  now  be  our  endeavor  to  give  some  details  of  the  minute 
repeater,  which  in  consequence  of  its  additional  complication  is  nec- 
essarily more  puzzling,  and  when  faulty,  more  difficult  of  correction 
than  the  others  already  passed  in  review,  and  before  proceeding 
further  we  would  impress  upon  our  readers  the  desirability  of  giving 
special  attention  to  endshakes,  above  all  in  respect  to  center  wheel, 
as  likewise  proper  fitting  and  smoothly  revolving  set  arbor.  It  will 
be  seen  by  consulting  Fig.  267  that  the  quarter  snail  has  secured  to  it 
a  four-armed  piece  which  would  undoubtedly  be  properly  called 
"the  surprise  piece,"  and  which  is  actuated  by  a  click  in  all  respects 
similar  to  the  star  wheel  click;  this  four-armed  blank,  or  "surprise 
piece,"  together  w^ith  the  quarter  snail  attached  to  it,  is  keyed  onto 


Repeater.  300 

set  arbor,  but  in  such  a  manner  as  to  act  freely  to  and  fro  within  pro- 
per limits,  and  above  this,  and  secured  to  set  arbor,  beneath  the  canon 
pinion,  is  another  four-armed  piece,  but  very  much  differing  from  the 
"surprise  piece,"  insomuch  that  it  bears  upon  each  of  the  four  arms 
a  set  of  fourteen  teeth,  and  which  we  will  call  the  minute  snail.  Fig. 
268. 

The  necessity  for  each  of  these  fourteen  teeth  or  steps  of  the  snail 
are  obviously  for  the  minute-rack  tail  to  fall  upon  and  so  control  the 
number  of  minutes  to  be  struck  in  addition  to  the  hours  and  quarters, 
the  four-armed  or  "  surprise  piece  "  acting,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cor- 
responding piece  previously  described,  as  "  loose  piece  or  quarter 
snail,"  this  surprise  piece  of  course  giving  or  withholding  the  minutes 
as  required.  Figs.  269  and  270  show  the  quarter  and  minute  racks 
respectively,  the  former  differs  considerably  from  the  ordinary  quar- 


Fig.  269.  Fig.  270. 

ter  rack,  having  in  addition  to  the  six  teeth  for  raising  the  hammers, 
three  at  each  extremity,  an  internal  set  of  teeth,  and  for  gathering 
this  quarter  rack  by  means  of  these  internal  teeth  is  a  disc  with  a 
corresponding  number  of  teeth.  This  disc,  revolving  freely  on  the 
arbor  of  repeating  barrel,  has  an  upright  pin  fixed  about  midway  of 
the  teeth,  and  surmounting  this  disc  on  the  square  or  barrel  arbor  is 
the  rack  hook,  the  point  of  which  on  completion  of  the  striking  of 
the  hour  engages  with  the  upright  pin  and  so  gathers  the  quarter- 
rack. 

Attached  to  and  working  freely  by  means  of  a  shouldered  screw  is 
what  we  will  call  the  minute  "all-or-nothing,"  Fig,  271,  as  without  it 
the  minute  rack  would  not  be  released  to  fall  into  position  on  the 
minutesnail;  but  besides  acting  as  the  "all-or-nothing,"  it  also  does 
duty  in  another  capacity,  viz.,  to  gather  the  minute  rack,  this  being 
accomplished  by  the  lower  extremity,  which  in  shape  is  not  unlike  an 
ordinary  side  click  to  a  Geneva  barrel,  or  hook-shaped,  and  is  in 
reality  the  minute  rack  hook,  and  is  controlled  by  means  of  a  slight 


307  Repeater. 

spring,  which  at  the  proper  moment  brings  its  point  or  hook  into  one  of 
the  six  small  teeth  at  A  according  to  the  number  of  minutes  required 
to  be  struck.  The  upper  portion  of  this  piece,  Fig.  271,  is  really  the 
minute  "'  all-or-nothing,"  as  on  the  falling  of  the  two  racks,  the  point 
of  this  minute  "all-or-nothing"  in  its  descent  strikes  on  the  hammer 
pivot,  or  arbor,  which  stands  above  the  pallet,  and  so  raises  or  displaces 
it  from  the  teeth  at  A,  thus  allowing  thfe  tail  of 
rack  to  fall  upon  the  minute  snail  (according  to 
position  of  the  latter),  then  on  returning,  the 
hour  and  quarters  having  struck,  this  upper 
portion,  or  "  all-or-nothing "  disconnecting 
from  contact  with  pivot  or  arbor  of  hammer 
allows  the  front  or  lower  click,  or  hook-shape 
portion,  to  fall  into  one  of  the  teeth  at  A,  and  so  gather  the  minute 
rack. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  rack,  besides  the  teeth  at  A,  has  fourteen 
other  teeth  at  another  extremity,  this  being  the  necessary  number  to 
correspond  with  the  number  of  blows  required  between  each  quarter 
of  an  hour,  and  of  Course  have  the  same  action  of  raising  the  ham- 
mer as  in  the  case  of  the  hours  and  quarters. 

The  amount  of  work  to  be  accomplished  with  precision  by  a  min- 
ute repeater  will  show  how  soon  inaccuracie^an  occur  if  due  regard 
be  not  paid  to  important  points;  for  instance,  we  will  suppose  that 
either  of  the  center  pivots  are  cut,  and  require  the  wear  polished  out, 
and  new  hole  or  holes  put  in;  a  little  thought  will  clearly  convince 
one  of  the  necessity  of  exercising  the  utmost  care  in  the  operation,  as 
to  throw  the  wheel  out  of  upright,  in  ever  so  slight  a  degree,  means 
mischief,  and  to  leave  a  large  hole  is  out  of  the  question,  especially 
with  the  pivot  cut,  which,  of  course,  increases  the  friction,  causing  a 
loss  of  power,  and  consequently  bad  time-keeping,  besides  the  speedy 
failure  of  the  oil. 

A  good  method  of  putting  in  a  new  hole  is  by  means  of  a  turned 
bushing,  and  for  this  purpose  avoid  the  use  of  the  drilled  brass,  which 
invariably  splits  either  in  turning  or  riveting,  and  brings  about  the 
very  trouble  you  wish  to  avoid;  the  solid  drawn  wire  is  the  thing  for 
the  purpose.  Cut  the  required  length,  drill  as  near  central  as  possi- 
ble, and  open  tightly  on  to  pivot,  (which  has  first  had  the  wear  pol- 
ished out).  A  word  here  will  not  be  out  of  place  about  repairing  the 
pivot,  as  though  the  primary  object  is  to  polish  out  the  wear,  there  are 
other  points  to  be  observed;  in  the  first  place,  be  sure  to  keep  it 
straight,  as,  to  get  a  pivot  tapering  either  backwards  or  forwards, 
makes  it  impossible  to  get  a  good  fitting  hole,  which  at  the  same  time 
will  allow  the  wheel  to  act  with  perfect  freedom,  both  as  regards  the 
running  and  endshakes.  At  the  same  time  avoid  forming  a  lump  at 
the  root  or  shoulder;  should  this  by  chance  transpire,  however,  mat- 


Repeater.  308 

ters  can  soon  be  set  right  again  by  means  of  the  lathe  and  polisher  in 
a  few  minutes,  and  having  polished  out  the  wear,  take  a  sharp  graver 
and  catch  the  merest  shaving  from  the  extremity  of  the  pivot,  to  pre- 
vent the  possibility  of  a  burr  remaining,  as  this  would  cause  the  pivot 
to  stick  in  the  hole. 

In  broaching  out  the  old  hole  before  putting  in  new  bushing,  re- 
volve the  plate  and  broach  together,  of  course,  in  opposite  directions, 
as  this  will  materially  assist  in  opening  out  true  and  flat.  In  fact,  by 
occasionally  spinning  the  broach  in  the  fingers,  it  can  readily  be  seen 
whether  you  are  keeping  a  straight  or  upright  hole;  this  applies  more 
forcibly,  when  finally  opening  the  hole  for  the  pivot. 

In  fitting  a  bushing  into  a  plate,  before  removing  from  the  arbor  on 
which  it  has  been  turned,  be  careful  to  catch  each  end  perfectly  true, 
the  back  quite  flat,  and  the  front  slightly  hollow  for  riveting.  Do  not 
turn  it  tapering  forward  too  much,  and,  above  all,  do  not  have  it 
longer  than  just  sufficient  for  riveting,  and  fitting  so  tightly  as  to  ne- 
cessitate knocking  into  plate  preparatory  to  riveting,  and  before 
knocking  in  give  the  broach  a  slight  wriggle  to  rough  the  hole,  or  it 
can  be  roughed  with  the  edge  of  a  three-cornered  file. 

The  bushing,  or  plug,  must,  in  all  cases,  be  put  in  from  the  inside 
of  plate,  giving  a  slight  chamfer  to  outer  side  to  allow  rivet  to  grip 
more  firmly.  .^ 

Having  made  the  bushings  secure  by  carefully  riveting,  without 
»oo  violent  use  of  the  hammer,  and  opened  the  hole  to  pivot,  it  only 
remains  to  give  endshake,  and  to  do  this  properly  requires  a  lathe, 
and  either  the  use  of  a  hand-cutter  or  the  slide  rest;  though  if  a  lathe 
is  not  available,  good  sinking  tools  make  a  fair  job. — C.  T.  Etchells. 

To  Bend  Gong  Wires.  The  bending  of  a  gong  wire  in  a  repeating 
watch,  in  order  to  free  it  from  any  point  it  touches,  often  results  in  di- 
minishing the  sound  considerably.  Insucha  case,  Immisch  advises  as 
follows:  If  the  spring  touches  on  the  outside  and  must  consequently  be 
bent  inward,  it  should  be  laid  upon  a  convex  piece  of  brass  correspond- 
ing in  shape  with  the  inner  side  of  the  spring  at  the  place  where  it  is  to 
be  bent;  then,  if  the  outside  be  slightly  hammered  with  the  sharp  edge 
of  a  hammer,  the  small  indentations  produced  will  cause  the  outside 
to  lengthen  a  little  and  the  inside  to  contract  in  proportion.  The  time 
required  for  the  shape  to  become  permanent  differs  greatly  with  the 
degree  of  elasticity.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  bend  a  spring,  but 
the  repairer,  being  afraid  of  breaking  it,  abandons  the  idea.  Suppose 
it  is  desirable  to  bend  a  side  click  spring  of  a  Swiss  bridge  watch,  which, 
by  the  way,  is  generally  made  of  poor  steel.  Take  hold  of  the  end  in 
which  the  screw  goes  with  a  pair  of  brass-nosed  sliding  tongs,  hold- 
ing it  in  the  left  hand;  then  press  a  piece  of  brass  against  the  click, 
bending  it  in  the  direction  desired,  and  at  the  same  time  holding  it  over 


«09  Repeater. 

the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp  until  the  center,  or  spring  part,  becomes  a 
strawj  or  dark  red  color.  The  fact  that  spring-tempered  steel  is  brought 
to  a  dark  red-blue  twenty  times  over,  will  not  reduce  it  below  its  former 
temper; on  the  contrary,  it  will  tend  to  equalize  and  improve  the  temper, 
and  render  it  less  liable  to  break.  Suppose  a  cylinder  pivot,  or  any  pivot 
of  the  escapement  parts  are  bent,  and  you  wish  to  straighten  it  by  this 
process ;  take  a  small  brass  ring,  fit  it  to  the  pivot  and  hold  over  the  flame 
of  the  lamp,  bending  it  at  the  same  time  in  the  desired  direction. 

Repeating  Attachments.  Fig.  272  illustrates  the  repeating  attach- 
ment recently  patented  and  put  on  the  market  by  the  American  Repeat- 
ing Watch  Factory,  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J.  The  complete  mechanism  is 
arranged  on  a  small  plate  which  can  be  fastened  to  any  of  the  American 
made  movements  by  the  aid  of  a  few  screws,  and  the  construction  is  such 
that  it  can  be  wound  either  by  the  stem  or  by  the  repeating  slide,  the 
latter  being  similar  to  those  used  on  all  Swiss  repeaters.  The  stem  wind- 
ing pattern  can  be  applied  to  Elgin  16  size  hunting,  Illinois  and  Dueber- 
Hampden  16  sizes,  Waltham  14  sizes  and  Lancaster  18  sizes,  all  hunting 
movements.  The  repeating  slide 
style  can  also  be  applied  to  these 
watches.  The  slide  pattern  is  adapted 
particularly  to  Elgin  16  size  open 
face  and  Elgin  interchangeable  16 
sizes  and  to  Waltham  and  Columbus 
16  size  hunting  and  open  face,  Wal- 
tham 14  sizes,  Illinois  16  sizes  in  open 
face,  Howard  16  and  18  sizes  and 
Paillard  non- magnetic  watches,  both 
open  and  hunting.  The  attachment 
can  also  in  various  ways  be  applied  to 
other  American  and  Swiss  watches. 
Fig.  272   represents  the   attachment  Fig.  212. 

applied  to  an  Elgin  16  size  hunting  movement.  To  attach  this 
mechanism  to  a  watch,  first  wind  its  mainspring  completely  and  then 
let  it  down  only  one-quarter  turn.  Set  stop  wheel  in  position  with  its 
shoulder  against  the  stop  piece,  to  prevent  further  winding,  place  both 
racks  above  the  stop  wheel  and  let  the  mainspring  drive  the  parts  back 
to  their  normal  position.  The  lever  winding  parts  are  arranged  under  the 
repeater  plate  and  are  similar  in  construction  to  those  used  in  S  wiss  repeat- 
ers. The  stemwinding  connection  is  composed  of  a  ratchet  wheel  which  is 
geared  with  the  crown  wheel  of  the  stem-winding  mechanism  of  the 
watch,  and  a  ratchet  stem,  that  passes  through  the  wheel  and  both 
watch  plates,  carrying  on  its  other  end  a  pinion,  that  gears  into  the  re- 
peater barrel  wheel,  which  winds  its  mainspring  when  the  stem  is  turned 
to  the  left. 


Repeating  Rack. 


810 


REPEATING  RACK.  The  rack  in  a  repeater  supplied  with 
teeth  by  which  the  hours,  quarters  and  minutes  are  struck. 

REPEATING  SLIDE.  The  slide  by  means  of  which  the  repeat- 
ing train  is  wound  from  the  outside. 

RESILIENT  ESCAPEMENT.  A  form  of  the  lever  escapement 
in  which  the  lever  yields,  when  pressed  upon  the  outside  by  the  im- 
pulse pin,  and  allows  the  pin  to  pass.    See  Lever  Escapement. 

REST.  The  T'-shaped  piece  of  metal  attached  to  the  lathe  bed 
and  on  which  the  graver,  peg  wood,  polisher,  etc.,  is  rested.  It  is  also 
known  as  T  rest  and  hand  rest. 

Back  Rest.  Among  the  many  tools  that  watchmakers  can  make  for 
themselves,  one  of  the  most  useful  is  the  tool  illustrated  in  Fig.  273.  It 
is  a  modification  of  what  machinists  call  a  "  back  rest."    The  only 


Fig-  2^13. 

points  in  which  it  differs  from  that  employed  by  the  machinist  is  the 
shape  of  the  jaws  and  the  mode  of  fastening  to  the  lathe  bed.  a  shows 
the  rest  in  position  on  the  lathe  bed,  looking  from  right  hand  end  of 


311 


Ring  Gauge. 


bed ;  B  shows  the  base,  looking  from  above,  in  direction  of  arrow  h\ 
C  shows  bolt  for  binding  it  to  the  lathe  bed.  It  does  not  seem  as  though 
it  needed  much  explanation,  as  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  head  d  of 
bolt,  passes  up  through  the  longitudinal  slot  in  lathe  bed,  through  the 
round  hole  in  base  of  back  rest,  and  slipped  back  into  slot  m,  when  about 
half  a  turn  of  the  nut^  binds  it  firmly  to  the  bed.  The  washer  A,  on 
the  end  of  binding  screw,  is  riveted  or  soldered  in  place,  and  should  be 
close  enough  to  nut  ^  to  allow  only  about  half  a  turn  to  loosen  the  bolt, 
as  that  is  sufficient,  and  more  would  be  time  lost  in  running  the  nut  back 
and  forth  to  bind  or  loosen  the  rest.  It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  nut 
^  is  slackened  it  binds  against  the  washer  A,  and  it  will  stay  there,  and 
be  just  where  you  want  it  when  you  want  to  use  it  again.  The  jaws  are 
of  hard  brass;  about  three  sets,  with  points  of  different  widths,  will 
cover  a  good  range  of  work.  Those  shown  in  Fig.  273  are  suitable  for 
such  work  as  pivoting  small  French  clock  pinions,  etc.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  jaws  are  so  made  that  they  may  be  changed  by  slightly 
loosening  the  screws.  The  screw  heads  should  have  thin  steel  washers 
under  them. 

RING  GAUGE.     A  gauge  used  by  jewelers  for  measuring  the  inter- 
nal dimensions  of  finger  rings. 

RIVETING  STAKE.     A  steel  block,  pierced  with  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent sized  holes.     See  Staking  To«l. 


ROBIN,  ROBERT.      A  celebrated  French  watch  and  clock  maker. 
He     built     many     large     turret 
clocks  for  the  public  buildings  of 
France.     Born  in  1742  and  died 
in  1799. 

ROCKING  BAR.  The  steel 
bar  which  carries  the  interme- 
diate wheels  in  stem  wind  move- 
ments. Sometimes  called  the 
yoke. 


ROLLER     REMOVER. 

There  are  numerous  designs  in 
the  way  of  roller  removers  upon 
the  market,  but  lack  of  space 
prevents  description  and  illustra- 
tions of  them.  Fig  274  illustrates 
the  Hardinge  remover,  while  Fig 


Fig.  274. 
275  illustrates  the  Sheehan.      They 
are  both  excellent  tools  and  do  the  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


Romilly. 


312 


ROMILLY,  M.  A  clever  Swiss  horologist.  He  was  held  in  high 
esteem  in  Paris,  where  he  passed  the  greater  portion  of  his  life.  He  was 
born  at  Geneva  in  1714  and  died  in  1796. 


Fig.  27.5. 

ROSE  CUTTER.     A  hollow  cutter,  as  shown  in  Fig.  276,  used  for 
reducing  the  size  of  wire,  as  in  forming  heads  when  making  screws. 

ROSE  ENGINE.  A  form  of  lathe  in  which  the  rotary  movement 
of  the  mandrel  may  be  combined  with  a  lateral,  reciprocating  movement 
of  the  tool  rest,  the  result  being  a  movement  of 
eccentric  character.  In  this  way  many  curves  of  an 
epicycloid  or  hypocycloid  character  and  of  great 
variety  and  beauty  may  be  obtained  by  varying  the 
rate  of  speed  between  the  lathe  mandrel  and  the 
iiig.  2,0.  j^^j  screw,  or  splined  rod  which  governs  the  motion 

of  the  tool  post  in  the  slide  rest.  The  change  gears  are  handled  as 
in  the  ordinary  engine  lathe.  Another  form  of  this  engine  has  a  very 
heavy  head,  formed  of  a  series  of  disks,  circular  in  form,  and  placed  con- 
centrically on  the  shaft,  so  that  they  resemble  a  cone  pulley  having  a 
large  number  of  steps.  These  disks,  instead  of  being  true  circles,  are 
formed  of  a  great  number  of  facets,  so  that  the  discs  constitute  polygons 
of  64,  120,  180,  etc.,  sides.  The  central  mandrel  bears  an  eccentric  chuck 
and  has  lateral  play,  so  that  the  facets,  striking  on  a  rigid  roller,  throw 
the  mandrel  alternately  in  and  out  of  center,  tiius  bringing  the  work  regu- 
larly to  and  away  from  the  cutting  tool,  making  the  tool  cut  a  lozenge- 
shaped  chip  each  time  a  facet  on  the  disc  is  encountered  by  the  roller. 
The  work  being  held  eccentrically  in  the  chuck,  these  chips,  or  digs,  are 
verv  fine  and  close  at  the  center,  and  enlarged  proportionately  as  they 
reach  the  outside  of  the  watch  case  or  other  object  being  ornamented. 


813 


Rouge. 


The  work  is  done  with  tools  which  have  been  snarpened  and  polished  so 
carefully  as  to  make  a  "  bright  cut "  on  the  metal,  and  the  operator  turns 
the  lathe  with  one  hand  and  watches  the  progress  of  the  work  with  a 

glass. 


ROUGE.     See  Red  Stuff. 

ROUNDING  UP  ATTACHMENT.  The  Webster  rounding  up 
attachment,  shown  in  Fig.  277,  is  a  very  useful  adjunct  to  the  lathe.  It 
is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  slide-rest.  To  operate,  a  pointed  taper 
chuck  is  put  in  the  lathe  spin- 
dle. The  wheel  to  be  rounded 
up  is  put  into  the  fixture  and 
the  wheel  adjusted  vertically 
so  that  the  point  of  the  lathe 
center  will  be  at  the  center  of 
the  thickness  of  the  wheel, 
after  which  the  lower  spindle 
of  the  fixture  should  not  be 
moved.  Now  remove  the 
wheel,  also  the  taper  chuck, 
and  put  the  saw  arbor,  with 
the  rounding-up  cutter,  in  the 
lathe  spindle,  and  adjust  the 
longitudinal  slide  of  the  slide- 
rest  so  that  the  rounding-up 
cutter  will  be  back  of  and  in  ^^0-  277. 

line  with  the  center  of  the  rounding-up  fixture,  after  which  the  longi- 
tudinal slide  of  the  slide-rest  should  not  be  moved.  Now  put  the  wheel 
and  supporting  collet  in  place,  and  proceed  with  the  rounding-up. 


ROY,  PETER.     Watchmaker  to  the  King  of  France.     Died  1785. 
Author  of  two  works  on  horology. 

ROZE,  A.  C.    An  eminent  French  watchmaker.     Born  in  1812,  and 
died  in  1862. 


RUBY  PIN.    The  impulse  jewel  set  in  the  roller  o£  the  lever 
escapement. 

RUBY  ROLLER.     The  roller  in  the  duplex  escapement  which 
locks  the  escape  wheel  teeth. 

SAFETY  PIN.    In  the  lever  escapement,  a  pin  that  when  the  hands 
are  turned  backward,  prevents  the  pallets  leaving  the  escape  wheel. 


Safety  Pinion.  314 

SAFETY  PINION.  A  center  pinion  which  allows  the  barrel  to 
recoil  when  the  mainspring  breaks. 

SAPPHIRE  FILE.  A  piece  of  flat  brass  to  which  a  piece  of  sapphire, 
previously  flattened,  is  attached  by  means  of  shellac.  It  is  used  for  work- 
ing upon  garnet  pallets  and  other  soft  stones.  The  sapphire  is  ground 
upon  a  diamond  mill,  and  its  surface  rendered  coarse,  or  fine,  according 
to  the  mill  used.  A  strip  of  copper  and  diamantine  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  sapphire  files. 

SCREWS.  Odd  sized  screws,  not  to  be  had  from  the  material  dealers, 
may  be  readily  made  by  means  of  the  screw  plate  and  rose  cutter.  The 
rose  cutter  is  quite  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  lathe,  and  is  fixed  to  the 
spindle  in  the  same  manner  as  the  chuck,  and  will  be  found  exceedingly 
useful  for  quickly  reducing  pieces  of  wires  for  screws,  etc  ,  to  a  gauge. 
For  screws,  the  wire  should  be  of  a  proper  size  for  the  screw  heads,  and 
a  cutter  selected  with  the  hole  the  size  of  the  finished  screw.  The  point 
of  the  wire  is  rounded  to  enter  the  hole  of  the  cutter,  against  which  it  is 
forced  by  the  back  center  of  the  lathe,  the  serrated  face  of  the  cutter 
rapidly  cutting  the  superfluous  metal,  the  part  intended  for  the  screw 
passing  into  the  hole  in  the  cutter.  Some  care  is  required  in  rounding 
the  point  of  the  wire,  for  if  not  done  equally  all  around,  the  screw  will 
not  be  true  to  the  head. 

To  Remove  Broken  Screws.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  screw 
gets  broken  off  in  a  watch  plate  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is  impossible  to 
remove  it  with  tools  without  marring  the  plate.  In  such  an  event  pro- 
ceed as  follows :  Put  enough  rain  water  into  a  glass  tumbler  to  thor- 
oughly cover  the  plate  and  add  sulphuric  acid  until  the  water  tastes  a 
sharp  sour.  Place  the  plate  in  the  solution  and  allow  it  to  remain  a  few 
hours,  when  the  screw  will  partially  dissolve  and  drop  out.  Remove  from 
the  solution,  wash  thoroughly  in  clean  water,  then  in  alcohol  and  dry  in 
saw  dust.  The  solution  will  not  injure  the  brass  plate  or  gilding  in  the 
slightest,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  remove  all  other  screws  or  cement 
jewels,  previous  to  immersion. 

Any  one  having  an  American  lathe  can,  with  small  expense  of  time 
and  labor,  make  a  small  attachment  which  will  easily  and  quickly 
remove  a  broken  screw  from  the  plate  or  pillar  of  any  watch. 

Take  two  common  steel  watch  keys  having  hardened  and  tempered 
pipes — size,  four  or  five — having  care  that  the  squares  in  each  are  of 
the  same  size  and  of  good  depth.  Cut  off  the  pipes  about  half  an  inch 
from  the  end;  file  up  one  of  these  for  about  one-half  its  length,  on  three 
equal  sides,  to  fit  one  of  the  large  split  chncksof  the  lathe.  Drill  a  hole 
in  one  of  the  brass  centers  of  the  lathe  of  sufficient  size  and  depth,  into 
which  insert  the  other  key-pipe,  and  fasten  with  a  little  solder.     Soften  a 


315 


Screw  Driver. 


piece  of  Stubs'  wire,  to  work  easily  in  the  lathe,  and  turn  down  for  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  end  to  a  size  a  little  smaller  than  the  broken 
screw  in  the  plate;  finish  with  a  conical  shoulder,  for  greater  strength, 
and  cross-file  the  end  with  a  fine  slot  or  knife-edge  file,  that  the  tool  may 
not  slip  on  the  end  of  the  broken  screw;  cut  oS  the  wire  a  half  inch  from 
the  end  and  file  down  to  a  square  that  will  fit  closely  in  one  of  the  key- 
pipes.  Make  a  second  point  like  the  first  one  and  fit  it  to  the  other  key- 
pipe;  harden  in  oil,  polish,  and  temper  tea  dark  straw  color.  Fit  the 
brass  center  into  the  tail  stock.  To  use,  put  the  tools  in  place  in  the 
lathe,  place  the  broken  end  of  the  screw  against  the  end  of  the  point  in 
the  lathe  head ;  slide  up  tl- .  oack  center  and  fasten  the  point  firmly 
against  the  other  end  of  the  screw,  that  it  may  not  slip  or  turn ;  revolve 
tne  plate  slowly,  and  the  broken  screw,  being  held  fast  between  the  two 
points  will  be  quickly  removed.  To  remove  a  broken  pillar  screw,  place 
the  broken  screw  against  the  point  in  the  lathe-head,  holding  the  plate 
firmly  with  the  right  hand,  the  pillar  on  a  line  with  the  lathe  center; 
turn  the  lathe-head  slowly  backward  with  the  left  hand,  and  the  screw 
will  be  removed.  Should  the  tool  slip  on  the  broken  screw,  and  fail  to 
draw  it  out,  drill  a  hole  in  the  pillar  in  the  lower  or  dial  side,  down  to 
the  screw  point  (if  the  size  of  the  pillar  from  the  plate  will  admit  of  so 
doing),  and  with  the  second  point  in  the  back  center,  remove  the  screw 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  plate  screw  in  the  first  process.  Five  or  six 
sizes  of  these  points  will  be  found  sufficient  for  the  majority  of  these 
breakages  that  may  occur.     See  Screw  Extractor, 

To  Blue  Screws.     See  Blueing  Pan. 

Left-Handed  Screws.  A  screw  plate  for  left-handed  screws  can 
easily  be  made  by  screwing  a  good  piece  of  steel  of  the  desired  size  into 
a  right-handed  screw  plate,  removing,  filing  down  on  two  sides,  to  leave 
only  a  knife  edge,  and  hardening.  Drill  hole  in  steel  plate  and  cut  with 
the  screw  described  by  turning  with  reverse  or  left-handed  motion. 
Left-handed  screws  can  be  made  very  successfully  with  tb's  plate. 


SCREW  DRIVER.  A  well  made  and  light  screw  driver  is  an 
important  tool  to  the  watchmaker.  The  point  should  be  well  polished 
and  of  a  width  nearly  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  screw  head.     One  of 


Fiij.   273. 


the  best  forms  on  the  market  is  the  Waltham,  shown  in  Fig.  278.    It  has 
four  different  sizes   of  blades   which  are  readily   adjusted   to   position- 


Screw  Extractor. 


81G 


Screw  drivers,  are  sometimes  made  in  sets,  the  various  width  of  blades 
being  readily  detected  on  the  bench,  as  the  color  of  the  handle  of  each 
width  is  different. 


SCREW  EXTRACTOR.  The  Bullock  Screw  Extractor,  shown 
in  Fig.  279,  is  a  simple  yet  very  valuable  accessory  to  the  watchmaker, 
who  finds  he  has  a  plate  in  which  a  screw  has  been  broken  off.  To  use 
this  tool,  first  fasten  it  in  your  vice,  then  bring  one  end  of  broken  or 


Fig.  279. 

rusted-in  screw  against  screw  center  and  the  broken  screw  bead  against 
screw  driver;  turn  the  washers  so  as  to  hold  the  broken  screw  firmly  in 
place;  turn  the  plate  gently,  and  the  broken  screw  will  follow  the  screw 
driver  point  out  of  the  plate.  It  may  be  necessary  in  some  instances  to 
turn  the  screw  driver  point  against  the  broken  head  with  a  good  deal  of 
force  in  order  to  start  the  screw.  A  little  benzine  or  kerosene  applied  to 
the  screw  will  help  to  loosen  it. 

SCREW  HEAD  SINK  CUTTER.  This  tool  is  not  kept  by 
material  dealers,  although  a  tool  which  somewhat  resembles  it,  known 
as  the  countersinker,  is.  The  countersinker  does  not  have  the  central 
pivot  for  centering  up  by.  We  sometimes  have  American  watches 
brought  to  us  with  the  end-stone  (cap  jewel),  broken,  and  a  new  one 
must  be  put  in.  The  jewel,  being  set  in  brass,  is  held  by  two  screws  on 
opposite  sides,  the  screw  heads  being  let  in,  or  sunk  even  with  the  sur- 
face, half  of  the  screw  head  projecting  over  on  the  end-stone.  The  end- 
stones  furnished  by  the  watch  companies  are  not  simk  for  these  screw 
heads,  but  are  round  and  of  tlie  proper  diameter.     These  cutters  will  cut 


317  Screw  Head  Cutter. 

away  from  the  jewel  the  space  to  be  occupied  by  the  screw  head  in  a  very 
few  moments,  and  as  perfectly  as  you  like.  All  the  American  com. 
panics  do  not  use  the  same  diameter  of  screw  head  in  the  cock  and 
potence,  consequently  you  will  be  compelled  to  make  a  separate  tool  for 
the  Waltham,  Elgin,  Hampden,  Illinois,  and  other  makes  of  watches, 
•where  the  sizes  are  different.  With  a  set  of  six  of  these  cutters  you  can 
fit  any  American  watch.  They  are  easily  made,  and  will  repay  you  for 
the  trouble. 

Cut  off  a  piece  of  wire  of  the  required  diameter,  about  one  inch  long, 
and  place  it  in  a  chuck  that  fits  it  snugly,  and  turn  one  end  to  a  center 
about  forty  degrees.     Now  reverse  the  wire  in  the  chuck,  and  be  sure  it 


Fig.  280. 

is  true ;  select  a  drill  that  will  pass  through  the  screw  hole  in  the  cock 
or  potence  freely,  and  proceed  to  drill  a  hole  in  the  center  of  the  end  of 
the  wire,  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  deep.  Remove  from  the  lathe, 
and  with  a  sharp  file  and  graver,  proceed  to  cut  a  series  of  teeth  as  equal 
and  even  as  possible.  Use  a  good  strong  glass  while  working,  and  be 
sure  you  have  every  tooth  sharp  and  perfect,  as  upon  this  depends  the 
quick  and  nice  work  you  expect  from  the  tool.  When  this  is  well  done, 
proceed  to  temper  fairly  hard,  and  polish  up  the  outside  to  make  it  look 
workmanlike.  Now  select  a  piece  of  steel  pivot  wire,  of  a  size  that  will 
almost  fit  in  the  hole  drilled  in  the  end  of  the  tool,  and  polish  down  to 
the  proper  size  to  drive  in  the  hole  tightly.  Allow  this  wire  to  project 
about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch,  taper  the  point  and  polish.  The  tool 
being  completed,  you  are  ready  for  work. 

Select  an  end-stone  of  a  diameter  to  fit  tightly  in  the  cock  or  potence, 
at  may  be  required;  place  the  hole  jewel  in  place,  and  then  the  end-stone 
pressed  down  tightly  against  the  hole  jewel.  Place  your  cutter  in  a  split 
chuck  that  fits  true;  select  a  small  or  medium  sized  drill  rest  and  place 
in  the  tail-stock  spindle.  Hold  the  cock  or  potence,  with  the  jewels  in 
place,  against  the  drill  rest,  level,  and  proceeding  to  run  the  lathe  at  a 
fair  speed,  slowly  feed  the  cock  or  potence  to  the  cutter,  the  projecting 
pivot  in  the  end  of  the  cutter  passing  through  the  screw  hole,  and  acting 
as  a  guide  to  keep  the  cutter  in  the  center  of  the  hole.  Caution  must  be 
exercised,  or  you  will  cut  the  recess  for  the  screw  heads  too  deep,  as 
these  little  cutters  are  very  deceiving,  and  cut  much  faster  than  you 
would  suppose.  In  fitting  an  end-stone,  select  one  that  is  more  than 
fiush  when  the  jewel  hole  and  end-stone  are  in  the  proper  position,  and 
after  sinking  the  screw  head  as  described,  turn  off  on  the  lathe  almost 
flush  or  level.  Make  a  small  dot  on  one  side  of  the  end-stone,  as  a  mark 
or  guide  in  replacing  it.  Remove  the  end-stone  and  proceed  to  polish 
the  top  of  the  setting  on  a  plate  glass  polisher. 


Screw  Plate.  318 

SCREW  PLATE.  A  plate  of  hard  steel  in  which  are  threaded 
holes  of  various  sizes,  for  making  screw  threads. 

SCREW  TAP.     A  tool  for  producing  screw  threads  in  holes. 

SECONDS  HAND  REMOVER  AND  HOLDER.  The  minute- 
ness of  the  second  hand  makes  it  very  difficult  to  manipulate.  The 
little  tool  shown  in  Fig.  281  will  be  found  very  useful  in  handling  these 
hands.     To    use    it,  raise  the  spring  witli     the  thumb,  and  push  the 


Fig.  281. 

tool  along  the  dial  astride  the  arbor;  then  let  go  the  spring  and  raise  the 
tool.  The  spring  will  hold  the  second  hand  firmly  until  replaced.  For 
broaching,  hold  the  tool,  spring  side  down,  firmly  on  bench  or  vice. 

SECONDS  HAND  SETTING.  This  improvement  in  watches  is 
very  useful,  as  it  prevents  a  number  of  accidents  or  errors  in  the  regula- 
tion. The  attempt  to  open  the  glass-bezel  of  the  watch  to  turn  the 
second  hand  with  a  pocket  knife  or  other  instrument  to  the  right  position, 
to  make  it  correspond  with  the  minute  hand,  should  be  avoided,  as  the 
second  hand  may  be  shifted  or  loosened  on  the  pivot,  or  the  ends  of  the 
hand  may  be  bent  so  as  to  catch  the  other  hands,  which  causes  fre- 
quently  the  stopping  of  the  watch;  or  instead  of  the  front,  the  back  of  the 
watch  is  opened  and  with  a  penknife  or  pin,  the  balance  is  stopped,  and 
it  or  hairspring  may  be  easily  bent,  or  even  a  pivot,  jewel  or  end  stone 
broken.  It  is  at  any  rate  not  good  to  touch  a  fine  balance  with  any 
instrument  whatever,  to  scratch  the  same,  or  even  to  stop  the  same,  for 
the  purpose  of  having  the  second  hand  in  the  proper  position,  because  the 
most  careful  operator  may  accidently  drop  something  into  the  watch, 
causing  either  stoppage  or  troubles  of  irregularities  in  the  running  or 
time  keeping. 

In  the  corresponding  figures  the  invention  is  illustrated  as  applied  to 
to  pendant-set  watches  of  well  known  construction.  The  second  hand 
is  attached  to  a  small  wheel  /,  placed  upon  a  thin  steel  cannon,  that  fits 
firmly  to  the  seconds-wheel  pivot,  as  shown  in  Fig.  282.  The  stem- 
winding  wheels  are  placed  under  the  yoke,  and  the  crown-wheel,  inter- 
mediate winding-wheel,  and  the  setting-wheel,  as  usual.  The  wheels  6, 
5,  4  and  J  are  flat,  pivoted  to  the  watch-plate,  and  are  used  to  connect  the 
small  wheel  2  with  the  said  stem-winding  wheels.  This  wheel  2  is 
applied  to  a  rocking-lever  and  held  out  of  gear  with  the  seconds-set 
wheel  /,  by  the  short  arm  of  the  lever  resting  against  the  circular  edge  of 
the  yoke.    The  said  lever  is  pivoted  upon  wheel  j,  to  the  watch-plate, 


319 


Seconds  Hand  Setting. 


and  fias  u  Nvelgutrid  arm  JV,  which  forms  a  weight  to  the  lever,  so  that 
the  t>ame  can  change  its  position,  by  gravity,  when  the  watcli  is  held 
with  its  stem  downward.  This  is  done  when  the  seconds  are  required  to 
be  set.  The  weighted  part  then  holds  the  rocking-lever  against  the  edge 
of  the  yoke,  which  is  provided  with  a  notch  or  stop  5.  In  the  downward 
position,  the  stem  is  pulled  outwardly,  and  the  yoke  is  moved  by  the 
usual  spring  and  mechanism,  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  283,  to  an 
intermediate  T^osMion  between  the  setting  ana  winding  positions,  or  plainly 
said,  the  winding-wheel  /just  passes  freely  the  barrel-arbor  wheel  B  and 
the  setting-wheel  is  not  yet  engaged  to  the  dial-wheel  D.  The  move- 
ment of  the  yoke  being  stopped  by  its  notch  or  stop  5  coming  in  contact 
with  the  rocking-lever,  which,  by  the  gravity  of  Its  weighted  part  bear- 
ing against  the  edge  of  the  yoke,  drops  into  its  notch  s,  thereby  stopping 
the  yoke  on  its  way  toward  the  setting  position.  When  the  lever  is 
caught  by  the  notch  s  the  same  is  turned  on  its  pivot,  so  that  its  wheel  z 


Fig.  282. 


Fig.  283. 


is  brought  in  gear  with  the  seconds  setting- wheel  y,  and  by  turning  the 
stem  now,  the  second  hand  can  be  turned  forward  or  backward  to  any 
second  of  the  dial.  By  doing  this  the  watch  can  be  held  in  any  desired 
position,  either  horizontal  or  with  its  stem  up,  as  it  must  be  understood 
that  the  lever  is  now  held  firmly  into  the  notch  of  the  yoke  by  the  press- 
ure or  the  yoke  spring,  which  the  weight  of  the  lever  cannot  overcome, 
and  therefore  a  sure  connection  is  established  between  the  second  setting- 
wheel  and  the  stem-arbor  of  the  watch.  When  the  seconds  hand  has 
been  adjusted,  an  immediate  disconnection  of  the  wheel  2  from  the 
seconds  wheel  y  is  established  by  pressing  the  stem  arbor  inwardly, 
whereby  the  yoke  is  shifted  or  swung  to  the  winding  position,  and  the 
notch  .s  awav  from  the  rocking  lever,  which  is  turned  upon  the  edge  of 
the  yoke  to  its  normal  position  as  shown  in  Fig.  282.  If  the  minute  hand 
has  to  be  set  solely,  the  stem  is  pulled  outwardly  as  usual,  whereby  the 
watch  is  held  in  any  positian  except  that  with  its  stem  downward,  (which 


Seconds  Hand  Setting. 


320 


is  only  done  in  case  the  seconds  hand  has  to  be  set,  to  produce  the  drop- 
ping of  the  rocking-lever  into  the  notch  5),  and  stops  the  yoke  in  its 
motion  before  reaching  the  setting  position.  In  holding  the  watch  in  the 
usual  position,  the  weighted  rocking-lever  always  passes  over  the  notch 
and  is  held  on  the  circular  edge  of  the  notch  in  this  position,  but  the  yoke 
can  freely  swing  to  its  setting  position,  that  is,  its  setting-wheel  is  brought 
fully  in  engagement  with  the  dial-wheel  for  setting  the  minute  hand.  The 
second  hand  can  either  be  operated  before  or  after  the  setting  of  the 
minute  hand,  at  will. 

The  Figs.  282  and  283  represent  an  Elgin  16  size  open  face  pendant- 
set  watch.  Fig.  284  represents  a  Waltham  18  size  pendent-set  watch. 
The  weight  W  is  shown  herein  separated  from  the  working-lever,  that 
controls  the  wheel  2.  The  stop  s  on  the  yoke  is  formed  aside  from  the 
notch  arranged  into  the  circular  edge  of  the  yoke  and  the  rocking-lever 
is  always  pressed  against  the  same  by  a  suitable  spring.    The  wheel  2  is 


Figr.  284.  Fig.  285.  Fig.  286. 

held  out  of  gear  with  the  seconds-setting  wheel  /  as  long  as  the  said 
notch  is  not  engaged  by  the  rocking-lever,  this  being  only  the  case,  by 
first  holding  the  watch  with  its  stem  E  down,  so  that  the  weighted  part 
W  can  engage  the  stop  5,  which  is  brought  toward  and  against  the  same, 
when  the  stem  is  pulled  outwardly.  In  this  position  the  notch  of  the 
yoke  is  exactly  moved  in  line  with  the  end  of  the  rocking  lever  and  en- 
gaged thereby,  which  is  turned  with  its  wheel  2  out  of  connection  with 
the  seconds-set  wheel  /,  as  shown  in  Fig.  284.  In  pressing  the  stem 
inwardly,  the  yoke  is  again  brought  back  to  the  winding  position  as 
usual  and  the  notch  away  from  said  rocking-lever,  which  is  thereby 
turned  with  its  wheel  2  out  of  connection  with  the  wheel  /.  When  the 
minutes  are  to  be  set,  hold  the  watch  in  any  position  except  with  the 
stem  downward,  and  pull  the  stem  outwardly.  The  motion  of  the  yoke 
is  then  produced  by  its  spring  to  its  fullest'  turn,  that  is,  the  setting- 
wheel  5  is  brought  in  connection  with  the  dial-wheel  D,  as  usual.  It 
will  thus  be  seen,  that  as  long  as  the  rocking-wheel  is  held  against  the 
circular  edge  of  the  yoke,  the  wheel  2  is  held  out  of  gear  of  wheel  y,  and 
can  on'^y  connect  with  the  same  when  the  yoke  is  shipped  around  suffi- 
ciently and  stopped  by  the  weight,  and  this  can  be  done  only  by  pulling 


321  Sector. 

the  stem  out  so  that  the  notch  can  come  in  line  with  the  end  of  the 
rocking-lever,  which  moves  into  the  same  and  receives  thereby  the 
motion  to  set  its  wheel  2  into  gear  with  wheel  /. 

Fig.  286  is  a  seconds-setting  attachment  which  can  be  placed  on  key 
or  stem  winding  watches  of  a  peculiar  construction.  /  is  the  seconds- 
hand  wheel  and  the  wheel  2,  which  is  placed  on  a  small  longitudinally 
movable  stem,  is  shiftable  in  or  out  of  connection  with  the  said  wheel  1 
by  the  outward  or  inward  motion  of  said  stem.  The  invention  was  pat- 
ented March;;20,  1888,  by  Fred  Terstegen,  of  Elizabeth,  N.  J. 

SECTOR.  A  mathematical  instrument,  consisting  of  two  rulers 
connected  at  one  end  by  a  joint;  mostly  used  for  measuring  wheels 
and  pinions. 

SHELLAC.  A  resinous  substance  used  extensivety  by  watchmak- 
ers and  jewelers  for  holding  work.  Shellac  is  a  corruption  of  Shell-lac. 
Lac  is  the  original  name  of  the  resinous  product  which  is  exuded  from 
an  insect  which  feeds  upon  the  banyan  tree.  In  its  natural  state  it  in- 
crusts  small  twigs  and  is  known  as  stick-lac.  It  is  then  broken  from  the 
wood  and  boiled  in  alkaline  water  and  the  product,  from  its  shape,  is 
called  seed-lac.  It  is  then  melted  and  reduced  to  thin  flakes,  known  in 
commerce  as  shell-lac  or  shellac, 

SHERWOOD,  N.  B.     A  clever  mechanic,  mathematician  and  in- 
ventor.     He  was  born  in  New  York  state  in  1823.      In  1856  he  entered 
the  employ  of  Mr.  Howard  in  the  Waltham  factory,  and  there  his  inven- 
tive genius  was  brought  into  full  play  in  originat- 
ing  new  tools   and    machines   to   do   the    work 
formerly  done  by  hand.     He  not  only  conceived 
new  ideas,  but  being  an  excellent  draftsman,  he 
placed  them   on    paper  and    then   entering    the 
machine  shop  he  put  these    machines  together. 
L'nder  his  charge  the  jeweling  department  of  the 
tactory  made  a  complete  revolution  over  the  old 
methods,  and  new  methods  and  systems  of  doing 
work  were  introduced  and  the  product  doubled. 
N.  B.  Shertcood.  Uany  of  the  machines  and  tools  used  to-day  in 

watch  factories  were  invented  and  first  built  by  him.  Among  his 
many  inventions  were  the  counter-sinker  or  screw-head  tool,  for  jewel 
screws;  the  end-shake  tools,  the  opener,  and  the  truing-up  tools.  In 
1S64  he  interested  capitalists  and  organized  the  Newark  Watch  Com- 
pany.   He  died  in  October,  1872. 

SIDEREAL  CLOCK.  A  clock  adjusted  to  measure  sidereal  time. 
It  usually  numbers  the  hours  from  o  to  24.     See  Time. 


Sidereal  Day.  322 

SIDEREAL  DAY.  The  interval  of  time  between  two  successive, 
transits  over  the  same  meridian  of  the  vernal  equinox,  or  first  point  of 
Aries.     It  is  the  true  period  of  the  earth's  rotation.     See  Time. 

SILVER.  A  soft,  white,  precious  metal,  very  malleable  and  ductile 
and  capable  of  taking  a  high  polish.  For  Silver  Plating,  see  Electro. 
Plating 

Separating  Silver.  The  silver-holding  alloy  or  metal  is  dissolved  in 
the  least  possible  quantity  of  crude  nictric  acid.  The  solution  is  mixed 
with  a  srtong  excess  of  ammonia  and  filtered  into  a  high  cylinder,  pro- 
vided with  a  stopper.  A  bright  strip  of  copper,  long  enough  to  project 
beyond  the  liquid,  is  next  introduced,  which  quickly  causes  separation  of 
pure  metallic  silver.  The  reduction  is  completed  in  a  short  time,  and 
the  reduced  silver  washed  first  with  some  ammoniacal  solution  and  then 
with  distilled  water.  The  more  ammoniacal  and  concentrated  the  solu- 
lution,  the  more  rapid  the  reduction.  The  strip  of  copper  should  not  be 
too  thin,  as  it  is  considerably  attacked,  and  any  little  particles  which 
might  separate  from  a  thin  sheet  would  contaminate  the  silver.  The 
operation  is  so  simple  that  it  seems  preferable  to  all  others  for  such 
operations  as  the  preparation  of  nitrate  of  silver  from  old  coins,  etc.  Any 
accompanying  gold  remains  behind  during  the  treatment  of  the  metal 
or  alloy  with  nitric  acid.  Chloride  of  silver,  produced  by  the  impurities 
in  the  nitric  acid,  is  taken  up  by  the  ammoniacal  solution,  like  the  cop- 
per, and  is  also  reduced  to  the  metallic  state;  and  whatever  other  metal 
is  not  left  behind,  oxidized  by  the  nitric  acid,  is  separated  as  hydrate, 
(lead,  bismuth),  on  treating  with  ammonia.  Any  arseniate  which  may 
have  passed  into  the  ammoniacal  solution,  is  not  decomposed  by  the 
copper. 

To  Distingmish  Genuine  Silver.  File  or  scrape  the  surface  of  the 
articles  to  be  tested,  rub  the  exposed  portion  on  a  touchstone  and  apply 
a  test  water  consisting  of  32  parts  of  distilled  water  and  16  parts  of 
chromic  acid.  Rinse  the  stone  in  water  and  if  the  article  is  genuine 
silver  a  red  spot  will  be  left  upon  the  stone,  but  if  it  is  an  imitation  the 
mark  will  be  unaffected.  The  finer  the  quality  of  the  silver  the  more 
intense  will  be  the  red  spot. 

Silver  Assay  with  Testing  Tube.  Place  in  the  tube  enough  of  the 
pulverized  mineral  to  fill  one  inch  of  space,  and  on  this  pour  nitric  acid 
to  occupy  two  inches  more,  and  hold  the  mixture  over  the  flame  until 
the  acid  boils.  The  acid  will  dissolve  whatever  silver  may  be  present, 
and  must  be  passed  through  filtering  paper  to  remove  extraneous  matter, 
and  returned  to  the  tube.  Next  add  a  few  drops  of  water  saturated  with 
salt  i  any  silver  or  lead  that  may  be  present  will  be  precipitated  in  a 


323  Silver. 

cloudy  form  to  the  bottom.  Drain  off  the  acid,  place  the  precipitate  in 
the  sunlight,  and  in  a  few  minutes,  if  it  contain  silver,  it  will  turn  to  a 
purple  color,  and  may  be  again  liquified  by  the  addition  of  spirits  of 
ammonia.  The  testing  tube  is  formed  of  thin  glass,  about  five  inches 
long,  and  less  than  one  inch  diameter;  bottom  and  sides  of  equal  thick- 
ness.   Where  the  tube  is  lacking,  a  cup  may  be  used  instead. 

Silver  Assay  by  Smelting.  If  no  lead  is  present,  mix  600  grs.  of  the 
pulverized  ore  with  300  grs.  carbonate  of  soda,  600  grs.  of  litharge,  and 
12  grains  charcoal  in  a  crucible;  add  a  slight  coal  of  borax  over  all,  put 
on  the  furnace,  melt,  take  off,  give  it  a  few  taps  to  settle  the  metal,  let  it 
cool,  and  remove  the  button. 

To  Clean  Silver  Plate.  The  tarnish  can  be  removed  by  dipping  the 
article  from  one  to  fifteen  minutes  in  a  pickle  of  the  following  composi- 
tion: Rain  water,  2  gallons,  and  cyanide  of  potash  J^  pound;  dissolve 
together,  and  fill  into  a  stone  jug  or  jar,  and  close  tightly.  The  article 
after  having  been  immersed,  must  be  taken  out  and  thoroughly  rinsed  in 
several  waters,  then  dried  with  fine,  clean  sawdust.  Tarnished  jewelry 
can  be  speedily  restored  by  this  process ;  but  be  careful  to  thoroughly 
remove  the  alkali,  otherwise  it  will  corrode  the  goods. 

Cleaning  Silverware.  Hyposulphate  of  soda  is  the  simplest  and 
most  effective  cleansing  material  for  silverware;  it  operates  quickly  and 
is  cheap.  A  rag  or  brush  moistened  with  the  saturated  solution  of  the 
salt  cleanses,  strongly  oxidized  silver  surfaces  within  a  few  seconds,  with- 
out the  use  of  cleaning  powder. 

Cleaning  Silver  Tarnished  in  Soldering.  Expose  to  a  uniform  heat, 
allow  it  to  cool,  and  then  boil  in  strong  alum  water;  or,  immerse  for  a 
considerable  length  of  time  in  a  liquid  made  of  one-half  ounce  of  cyanide 
of  potash  to  one  pint  of  rain  water,  and  then  brush  off  with  prepared 
chaik. 

Cleaning  Silver  Filigree.  Anneal  your  work  over  a  Bunsen  flame 
or  with  a  blowpipe,  then  let  grow  cold  (and  this  is  the  secret  of  success), 
and  then  put  in  a  pickle  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  not  more  than  five 
drops  to  one  ounce  of  water,  and  let  your  work  remain  in  it  for  one  hour. 
If  not  to  satisfaction,  repeat  the  process. 

To  Frost  Silver.  To  produce  a  frosted  surface  upon  polished  silver 
use  cyanide  of  potassium  with  a  brush;  the  silver  should  not  be  handled 
during  the  process,  but  held  between  pieces  of  boxwood  or  lancewood. 
The  propcr'tion  should  be,  i  ounce  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  i  pint 
ot  water. 


Single  Beat  Escapement. 


324 


To  Frost  Silver.  Silver  goods  may  be  frosted  and  whitened  by  pre- 
paring a  pickle  of  sulphuric  acid  i  dram,  water  4  ounces ;  heat  it  and 
immerse  the  silver  articles  until  frosted  as  desired ;  then  wash  off  clean, 
and  dry  with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  or  in  fine  clean  sawdust.  For  whiten- 
ing only,  a  small  quantity  of  acid  may  be  employed. 

To  Frost  Silver.  The  article  has  to  be  carefully  annealed  either  in  a 
charcoal  fire,  or  with  a  blowpipe  before  a  gas  flame,  which  will  oxidize 
the  alloy  on  the  surface,  and  also  destroy  all  dirt  and  greasy  substances 
adhering  to  it,  and  then  boiled  in  a  copper  pan  containing  a  solution  of 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid — of  i  part  of  acid  to  about  30  parts  of  water. 
The  article  is  then  placed  in  a  vessel  of  clean  water,  and  scratch- 
brushed,  or  scoured  with  fine  sand;  after  which  the  annealing  or  boiling- 
out  is  repeated  which  will  in  most  cases  be  sufficient  to  produce  the 
desired  result.  If  a  very  delicate  dead  surface  such  as  watch  dials,  etc., 
is  required,  the  article  is,  before  the  second  annealing,  covered  with  a 
pasty  solution  of  potash  and  water,  and  immediately  after  the  annealing, 
plunged  in  clean  water,  and  then  boiled  out  in  either  sulphuric  acid  solu- 
tion,  or  a  solution  of  1  part  cream  tartar  and  2  parts  common  salt  to 
about  30  parts  of  water.  If  the  article  is  of  a  low  quality  of  silver,  it  is 
well  to  add  some  silver  solution,  such  as  is  used  for  silvering,  to  the  sec- 
ond boiling  out  solution.  If  the  article  is  very  inferior  silver,  the  finish- 
ing will  have  to  be  given  by  immersing  it  in  contact  with  a  strip  of  zinc 
In  a  silver  solution. 

SINGLE-BEAT  ESCAPEMENT.  An  escapement  in  which 
each  tooth  of  the  escape  wheel  delivers  but  one  impulse,  the  entire 
space  between  one  tooth  and  the  next  passing  each  time,  as  in  the 
chronometer  and  duplex. 

SKIVE.  A  circular  disc  of  soft  iron  charged  with  diamond  upon 
its  edge  and  is  used  for  slicing  the  harder  stones. 

SLIDE  REST.    The  slide  rest  is  a  tool  holder  to  be  used  on  a 

lathe;  it  is  so  universally  used  by  all 
watchmakers  that  a  full  description  is 
superfluous.  Fig.  288  is  a  Waltham, 
and  is  a  fair  example  of  a  modern 
slide  rest  for  watchmakers'  use.  The 
tool  holder  varies  with  the  different 
makers,  but  the  rests  proper  are  all 
made  on  the  same  general  princi- 
ple: that  of  two  sliding  beds  work- 
ing at  right  angles  to  one  another 
and  carrying  a  tool  holder,  which 
is  capable  of  being  raised  or  low- 
ered, or  set  at  any  desired  angle. 


Fig.  2S8. 


325  SnaU. 

Snail,  a  cam  resembling  a  snail  in  form,  used  in  the  striking 
attachment  to  clocks. 

SNAILING.  The  ornamentation  of  the  surface  of  metals  by  means 
of  circles  or  bars,  sometimes  erroneously  called  damaskeening 

SNAP.  A  small  catch,  or  fastening,  as  in  a  bracelet.  The  fastening 
of  one  piece  of  metal  to  another  by  springing  of  the  edges,  as  in  the 
bezel  of  a  watch  case. 

SNARL.  To  emboss  or  raise  figures  upon  metal  work  by  driving 
the  metal  up  from  the  back  with  a  die  or  snarling  iron,  as  in  metal 
vases. 

SNARLING  IRON.  An  ,—>  shaped  steel  tool  which  is  used  in 
snarling,  or  embossing  metal  vases,  etc.  One  end  of  the  snarling  iron 
is  placed  in  the  vise,  and  the  shank  being  struck  with  a  hammer,  the 
repercussion  of  the  other  end  drives  out  the  metal.  The  snarling  iron 
is  only  used  on  vases,  pitchers,  and  like  hollow  ware. 

SOLDERING.  The  act  of  joining  two  metallic  surfaces  by  means 
of  a  more  fusible  metal,  or  metallic  cement.  Solders  are  commonly 
divided  into  two  groups,  known  as  hard  solders  and  soft  solders;  the  for- 
mer fuse  only  at  a  red  heat,  while  the  latter  fuse  at  low  degrees  of  heat. 
In  hard  soldering,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  bind  the  parts  to  be  sol- 
dered together  with  what  is  known  as  binding  wire,  which  is  made  ol 
soft  iron,  or  the  repair  clamps  shown  in  Fig.  238,  or  soldering  forceps 
shown  in  Fig.  257.  The  blow  pipe  is  used  most  extensively  for  solder- 
ing, although  small  soldering  irons  are  used  on  the  larger  kinds  of  work. 
It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  meeting  edges  of  all  articles  to  be 
soldered  be  scraped,  or  chemically  cleaned.  While  soldering,  articles  are 
usually  placed  upon  a  piece  of  charcoal,  though  asbestos,  or  pumice 
stone  is  better  for  the  purpose.  Cliarcoal  emits  gases  from  the  coal  while 
under  the  blowpipe,  which  enter  into  the  alloy  of  gold  or  silver  and  ren- 
der it  brittle.  To  prove  this,  reduce  a  small  piece  of  lok  gold  to  a  liquid 
form  on  a  piece  of  charcoal,  and  treat  a  piece  similarly  on  a  piece  of 
asbestos  or  pumice  stone,  and  after  allowing  each  to  cool,  subject  both  to 
a  heavy  pressure,  and  note  the  difference  in  their  malleability  and 
ductility. 

Hard  Solders.  Under  this  name  very  different  alloys  are  used,  de- 
pending upon  the  metals  to  be  united.  The  following  table  shows  the 
composition  of  various  hard  solders,  which  have  stood  a  practical  test 
for  various  purposes : 


Soldering. 


326 


Refractory 
Readily  Fusible, 
Half  White,     - 
White,    - 
Very  Ductile,  - 


Parts  Brass 

4.00 

5.00 

12  00 

40.00 

78.25 


Parts  Zinc, 

1.00 
4  00 
5.00 
2  00 

17.25 


Parts  Tin. 


1.00 
8.00 


Gold  Solders.  Gold  solders  should  approach  the  articles  to  be  sol- 
dered in  both  color  and  fusibility  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  following 
gold  solders  are  in  general  use : 


Hard  solder  for  750  fine 
Soft  solder  for  750  " 
Solder  for  583  " 

Solder  for  less  than  583  " 
Readily  Fusible  Solder 
Solder  for   yellow  Gold 


Parts  Gold. 


9.0 

12.0 

3.0 

2.0 

11.94 

10.0 


Parts 
Silver. 


2.0 
7.0 
2.0 
2.0 
54.74 
5.0 


Parts 
Copper. 


1.0 
3.0 
1.0 

28.17 


Parts  Zinc. 


5.01 
1.0 


Silver  Soldets. 
oughly  tested : 


The  following  hard   silver  solders  have  been  thor- 


First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 


Parts    Fine 
Silver. 


4 

2 

19 

57 


Parts 
Copper, 


1 
28.6 


Parts  Brass 


3 

1 

10 


Parts  Zinc. 


5 

14.3 


Soft  Solder.  The  soft  solder  most  frequently  used  consists  of  2  parts 
of  tin  and  1  of  lead.  The  following  table  gives  the  composition  of  various 
soft  solders  with  their  respective  melting  points : 


Number. 

ParU  Tin 

Parts 
Lead. 

Melts  at 
Degrees  F. 

Number. 

Parts  Tin 

Parts 
Lead. 

Melts  at 
Dee:.  F. 

1-      -     - 

25 

558 

7  -    - 

^Vz 

334 

2-    -    - 

10 

541 

8  -     - 

2 

340 

3.     -    - 

5 

511 

9  -     - 

3 

356 

4-     .    . 

3 

482 

10  -     - 

4 

365 

5-     -     - 

2 

441 

11  -     - 

5 

378 

6-     -     - 

1 

37 

12  -    - 

6 

380 

337  Soldering. 

Aluminium  Solder.  The  following  alloys  are  recommended  for  the 
purpose:  i.  Melt  twenty  parts  of  aluminium  in  a  suitable  crucible,  and 
■when  in  fusion  add  So  parts  zinc.  When  the  mixture  is  melted,  cover 
the  surface  with  tallow,  and  maintain  in  quiet  fusion  for  some  time, 
stirring  occasionally  with  an  iron  rod ;  then  pour'into  moulds.  2.  Take 
15  parts  of  aluminum  and  85  parts  zinc,  or  12  parts  of  the  former  and  88 
parts  of  the  latter,  or  8  parts  of  the  former  and  92  parts  of  the  latter;  pre- 
pare all  of  them  as  specified  for  No.  i.  The  flux  recommended  consists  of 
three  parts  balsam  copaiba,  one  of  Venetian  turpentine,  and  a  few  drops 
of  lemon  juice.     The  soldering  iron  is  dipped  into  this  mixture. 

Soldering  Fluxes.  For  hard  solder  use  borax  rubbed  to  a  paste  with 
water  on  a  slate.  For  soft  soldering  dissolve  a  small  piece  of  zinc  in  pure 
hydrochloric  acid  until  effervescence  ceases.  Take  out  the  undissolved 
zinc  after  24  hours,  filter  the  solulaon,  add  y^  its  volume  of  spirits  of  sal- 
ammoniac  and  dilute  with  rain  water.     This  fluid  is  non-corrosive. 

Soft  Solder  for  Smooth  Surfaces.  Where  two  smooth  surfaces  are  to 
be  soldered  one  upon  the  other,  you  may  make  an  excellent  job  by  mois- 
tening them  with  the  fluid,  and  then,  having  placed  a  sheet  of  tin  foil 
between  them,  hold  them  pressed  firmly  together  over  your  lamp  until 
the  foil  melts.  If  the  surface  is  fitted  nicely,  a  joint  may  be  made  in  this 
way  so  close  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible.  The  bright  looking  lead, 
which  comes  as  a  lining  for  tea  boxes,  is  better  than  tin  foil, 

To  Dissolve  Soft  Solder.  Nitric  acid  may  be  used  safely  for  gold 
not  lower  than  12k,  and  is  very  effective.  The  follow^ing  is  suitable  for 
all  grades  of  gold  and  silver:  Green  copperas,  2  oz. ;  saltpeter,  i  oz., 
reduced  to  a  powder  and  boiled  in  10  oz.  of  water.  It  will  become  crys- 
talized  on  cooling.  Dissolve  these  crystals  by  the  addition  of  8  parts  of 
spirits  of  salts  to  each  part  of  crystals,  using  an  earthenware  vessel.  Add 
4  parts  of  boiling  water,  keep  the  mixture  hot,  and  immerse  the  article 
to  be  operated  upon,and  the  solder  will  be  entirely  removed  without  injur- 
ing the  work. 

Soldering  Stone  Set  Rings.  There  are  various  ways  for  doing  this, 
but  the  following  will  be  found  as  good  as  any :  Take  tissue  paper  and 
tear  it  into  strips  about  three  inches  wide,  twist  them  into  ropes,  and  then 
make  them  very  wet  and  wrap  the  stone  with  them,  passing  around  the 
stone  and  through  the  ring  until  the  center  of  the  ring  is  a  little  more 
than  half  full  of  paper,  always  winding  very  close,  and  then  fasten  upon 
charcoal,  allowing  the  stone  to  project  over  the  edge  of  the  charcoal,  and 
solder  very  quickly.  The  paper  will  prevent  oxidation  upon  the  part  of 
the  ring  it  covers,  as  well  as  protecting  the  stone. 


Soldering  Forceps.  BS8 

SOLDERING  FORCEPS.  By  the  use  of  this  ingenious  device, 
any  article  to  be  repaired  can  be  adjusted  in  any  desired  position  in  a 
much  shorter  time,  and  with  more  accuracy,  than  by  the  ordinary  pro- 
cess oS binding  with  wire  to  a  piece  of  charcoal.  The  Crane  Patent  Sol- 
dering Forceps  are  so  constructed  that  any  two  pieces  can  be  as  readily 
brought  together  as  can  be  done  with  the  fingers,  no  matter  at  what  angle 
or  position  you  may  desire  them.     Each  part  works  independent  of  the 


Fig.  2S!t. 

other,  and  the  whole  is  held  securely  in  place  by  means  of  a  nut,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  289,  at  /^,  and  both  hands  being  free,  charcoal  can  be  held 
behind  the  article,  thereby  concentrating  the  heat,  the  same  as  when 
held  directly  upon  it.  In  soft  soldering  it  can  be  used  to  great  advan- 
tage. 

The  forceps  E  £,  revolve  in  parts  cl  d,  which  are  fastened  to  arms  C  C, 
by  means  of  a  hinge  joint.  The  arms  C  C  run  through  the  collars  l>l>,  so 
that  they  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened,  and  the  forceps  raised  or 
lowered  as  desired.  The  collars  bd  turn  independently  of  each  other  on 
base  A,  and  being  split,  the  whole  is  held  firmly  in  position  by  nut  F". 
See  also  Tzveezers. 


SOLDERING  PADS.  Figs.  290  to  2g2  illustrate  Melotte's  non-con- 
ducting soldering  pads,  which  are  reversible,  and  adapted  to  contain  a 
small  crucible  and  ingot  mould  on  one  side,  a  removable  rim,  shown  in 
Fig.  290;  a  detachable  handle,  and  various  spring  clamps  as  shown.  Fig. 


Soldering  Pads. 


292  illustrates  Melotte's  new  gas  olow-pipe,  which  is  used  with  these 
pads.  This  blow-pipe  is  simple  and  convenient,  and,  as  will  be  seen  by 
consulting  the  illustration,  it  consists  of  a 
blow-pipe  of  the  ordinary  form  having  a 
gas  pipe  inserted  in  the  lower  half,  and 
a  threaded  hood  or  sleeve  at  the  lower  end, 
which  changes  the  shape  of  the  flame  by 
screwing    in   or  out,   so   as    to    vary   the 


Fig.  290. 

influence  of  the  current  of  air  upon  the 
flame.  A  ring  adapted  to  slip  over  the 
finger  while  working,  is  soldered  to  the 
middle  joint  of  the  pipe,  and  the  quantity 
of  gas  is  controlled  by  the  stop-cock  and 


Fig.  291. 

spring  lever  shown  in  the  cut,  tne  gas  being 
supplied  to  the  pipe  by  a  rubber  tube  connecting 
it  to  the  nearest  gas  jet  in  the  usual  way.  Thus 
having  the  shape  of  the  flame  under  control,  and 


Fig.  292. 


Soldering  Pads.  330 

the  quantity  variable  at  will,  the  workman  is  in  position  to  accomplish 
the  desired  end  speedily  and  effectually. 

To  use  to  the  best  advantage,  set  the  jamb-nut  so  that  with  the  valve 
lever  in  its  normal  position,  the  flame  at  the  end  of  the  pipe  will  just  keep 
alight.  The  blow-pipe  can  then  be  laid  down  temporarily,  and  again 
used  without  the  trouble  of  turning  off  the  gas  or  relighting. 

When  used  as  a  mouth  blow-pipe,  tlie  most  convenient  way  to  hold  it 
is  with  the  third  finger  through  the  ring.  For  bellows  work  it  is  better 
to  pass  the  ring  over  the  index  finger.  The  ring  also  serves,  with  the 
valve-lever,  as  a  rest  to  hold  the  flame-nozzle  away  from  the  table  when 
the  blow-pipe  is  laid  down  temporarily. 

To  produce  an  oxy-hydrogen  flame,  connect  the  air-pipe  with  a  cylin- 
der of  nitrous  oxide,  opening  the  cylinder-valve  carefully,  so  as  to  permit 
the  escape  of  only  sufficient  nitrous  oxide  to  produce,  with  the  illuminat- 
ing gas,  a  very  small  flame.     Regulate  the  illuminating  gas  flow  with 


the  thumb-screw,  or  with  the  finger  on  the  lever  of  the  blow-pipe  valve. 

For  soldering,  use  the  grooved  face  of  the  pad,  with  or  without  the 
removable  rim  (shown  in  Fig.  290),  according  to  the  work.  The  wire 
staples  answer  the  double  purpose  of  holding  the  removable  rim  in  place 
and  raising  the  pad  from  the  table,  with  air-space  underneath. 

The  spring-clamps  are  useful  in  holding  the  parts  to  be  soldered,  the 
loops  in  the  metal  band  around  the  pad  permitting  them  to  be  placed  in 
any  desired  position. 

For  melting,  use  the  reverse  side  of  the  pad,  with  the  depression  for 
melting-cup.  Fig.  293  shows  the  melting-cup  and  ingot-mould  in  place. 
The  shield  is  a  flat  piece  of  metal,  with  a  lip  at  one  end.  The  small 
melting-cups  should  always  be  used,  as  flux  adheres  to  the  pad,  and  pulls 
off  particles  of  the  fiber.  Tlie  cup  is  held  in  place  by  two  pins,  inserted 
in  the  pad  on  either  side,  with  the  head  bent  over  the  edge  of  the  cup. 
Place  the  shield  upon  the  pad,  with  the  lip  in  the  depression  underneath 
the  edge  of  the  cup;  and  fasten  securely  by  placing  pins  through  the 
notches  in  the  edges.  Then  place  the  ingot-mold  upon  the  shield,  with 
the  mouth  of  the  proper  matrix  opposite  the  lip  in  the  cup.  To  insure 
a  smooth  ingot,  the  ingot-mold  should  be  slightly  warmed,  and  oiled  or 


831 


Specific  Gravities. 


waxed.  After  the  metal  is  melted,  tilt  the  pad  gradually,  carrying  the 
metal  toward  the  mold,  and  pour  quickly.  The  handle  of  the  pad  can  be 
attached  at  any  point. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES.  The  following  table  shows  the  specific 
gravities  of  numerous  metals  employed  in  the  arts,  together  with  their 
melting  points,  malleability,  ductility,  and  tenacity. 


Specific  Gravity. 

Melting 

Points. 

Order  of 

Mallea- 
bility. 

Order  of 
Ductility. 

Metals. 

Fahrenheit 

Centig'de 

city.* 

Platinum 

21.40  to  21.50 

Infusible  except  by  the 
Oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe. 

6 

3 

274 

Gold 

19.25  to  19.60 

2016° 

1102° 

1 

1 

150i 

Mercury 

13.56  to  13.59 

Lead 

11.40  to  11.45 

612° 

322° 

7 

9 

27i 

Silver 

10.47  to  10.50 

1873° 

1023° 

2 

2 

187 

Bismuth 

9.83  to    9.90 

497° 

258° 

Copper 

8.89  to    8.96 

1994° 

1090° 

3 

5 

302 

Nickel 

840  to    8.60 

2700° 

1482° 

10 

10 

Iron 

7.77  to    7.80 

2786° 

1530° 

9 

4 

549 

Tin 

7.25  to    7.30 

442° 

228° 

5 

8 

34i 

Zinc 

6.80  to    7.20 

773° 

412° 

8 

7 

I09i 

Antimony... 
Arsenic 

6.75  to    6.80 
5.70  to    5.90 

A  little  below 
red  heat. 
Volatiliz  s 

Aluminium. 

2.56  to    2.60 

1800° 

705° 

4 

6 

300 

SPECTACLE  TOOL.  Nearly  every  watchmaker  knows  what  a 
troublesome  thing  it  is  to  repair  spectacle  frames.  When  soldered,  the 
solder  will  run  through  and  fill  the  groove  for  the  glass,  and  it  is  no  easy 
matter  to  cut  the  solder  out  of  the  groove  with  a  graver.  The  graver 
will  slip,  scratch  and  mar  the  frames  in  spite  of  the  greatest  care.  This 
spectacle  tool  will  cut  out  the  groove  in  gold,  silver,  steel  or  any  other 
spectacle  frames  in  a  moment's  time,  smoothly  and  perfectly.  This  tool 
is  not  for  sale  by  material  dealers,  but  can  be  made  by  any  ingenious 
watchmaker.  Take  a  piece  of  Stubs'  polished  steel  wire,  say  number 
40  by  steel  wire  gauge,  and  one  and  a  fourth  inches  long.  Insert  the 
wire  in  a  chuck  in  your  lathe,  allowing  the  end  to  project  about  one- 
fourth  inch ;  proceed  to  turn  both  ends  to  a  center,  •  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2g4.  Select  two  female  centers  of  the  proper  size ;  place  one  in 
the  taper  chuck  of  your  lathe  and  the  other  in  the  tail  stock  spindle; 
fasten  a  dog  on  the  piece  of  wire,  and  proceed  to  turn  the  wire  even  and 
straight  throughout  its  entire  length.     Remove  from  the  lathe,  select  a 

♦Number  of  lbs.  sustained  by  0.787  of  a  line  in  diameter  in  wires  of  the  various 
metals. 


Split  Seconds.  332 

split  chuck  that  will  fit  snugly,  place  the  wire  in  the  chuck,  allowing 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  to  project;  remove  the  T  rest  of  your 
lathe,  and  insert  in  its  stead  a  filing  fixture.  By  the  aid  of  the  index  on 
the  lathe  pulley  and  the  filing  fixtures,  proceed  to  square  the  end  of  the 
wire,  (about  one-fourth  inch),  of  a  size  to  fit  in  an  American  ratchet 
wheel.  Now  select  two  ratchets  of  the  same  thickness  and  size  and 
place  them  on  the  square  cut  on  the  wire.  Proceed  to  round  up  the  bal- 
ance of  the  square  not  occupied  by  the  ratchets,  and  with  the  screw  plate 
cut  a  nice  full  thread  on  the  end  up  to  the  square.  Now  cut  off  a  small 
piece  of  steel  wire,  the  same  in  diameter  as  the  body  of  the  tool,  true  it  in 
your  lathe  chuck  and  drill  a  hole  in  the  center  about  one-eighth  inch 
deep.     With  a  screw  tap,  of  the  proper  size  to  fit  the  screw  on  the  end  of 


Fig.  294. 


the  shaft,  which  is  now  a  small  spindle,  tap  a  good  thread  in  the  hole. 
This  short  piece  is  intended  for  a  nut.  With  a  graver  cut  it  off  to  the 
desired  length,  replace  the  two  ratchets  and  screw  on  the  nut;  replace 
the  spindle  in  your  lathe  and  turn  up  the  nut  round  and  true.  While  in 
the  lathe,  square  half  the  length  of  the  nut  on  two  sides  only.  This  is 
intended  for  a  grab  or  hold  for  your  pliers  in  removing  the  nut  from  the 
spindle.  You  can  vary  the  width  of  the  cut  by  using  two  or  three 
ratchets  as  is  desired.  In  order  to  make  the  groove  rounding,  the  shape 
of  the  spectacle  glass,  hold  an  oil  stone  to  the  edge  of  the  ratchets  while 
revolving,  which  will  round  them  very  slightly.  American  ratchet 
wheels  make  good  cutters  and  any  width  of  groove  can  be  cut.  When 
the  teeth  get  dull  they  can  easily  be  sharpened  or  new  wheels  can  be  sub- 
stituted. With  this  tool  you  can  cut  the  solder  out  of  spectacle  frames 
in  a  few  minutes.  It  will  also  prove  useful  in  enlarging  spectacle 
frames,  in  fitting  new  lenses. 

SPLIT  SECONDS.     A  variety  of  double  chronograph   in  which 
there  are  two  center-seconds  hands. 


SPRUNG  OVER.     A  watch  in  which  the  hairspring  is  attached  to 
the  staff  above  the  balance. 

STAFF.     An  axis  or  arbor. 

STAKE.     An  anvil.     To  fasten  by  means  of  a  stake. 


833 


Staking  Tool. 


STAKING  TOOL.  A  tool  needed  by  every  watchmaker,  consist- 
ing of  a  shifting  table  or  stake,  around  which  holes  of  various  sizes  are 
arranged  in  a  circle,  so  that  any  desired  hole  may  be  brought  under  a 
suitable  punch  moving  in  a  vertical  holder.  Usually  twenty-four  tem- 
pered steel  punches  and  four  stumps  are  provided,  which  will  be  found 
sufficient  to  coverall  the  operations  in  the  ordinary  run  of  watch  repw*-*. 


Fg.  295. 

and  the  ingenious  workman  can  from  time  to  time  add  to  these  by  mak- 
ing punches  in  his  spare  moments,  if  he  finds  from  experience  that  he  is 
in  need  of  punches  of  a  different  shape.  Fig.  2q5  illustrates  the  Johan- 
son  comoination  staking  tool  on  the  front  of  which  a  hairspring  stud  in- 
dicator is  arranged. 

STAKING   TOOL  AND  ANVIL.     Smith's  patent  staking  tool, 
anvil  and  screw  holder,  shown  in  Fig.  296,  will  be  found  a  very  handy 

tool  for  removing  and  putting  on 


rollers,    for    putting    hairspring 

collet   on    balance   staff,   or   for 

A  S  ©  <§.  a  0  ^^^  riveting  in  bushings.     The  plain 

D  D  a  D  o  0  staking  block,  or  anvil,  is  usually 

Fig,  296.  made  of  a  solid  piece  of  polished 

steel,  in  the  form  of  a  cube,  or  circular  as  in  Fig.  297.    The  example 

shown  has  a  reversible  center  hub  which  makes  it  valuable  for  putting 

on  hands,  etc. 


star  Wheel. 


834 


STAR  WHEEL.  The  wheel  of  the  stop  work  which  is  pivoted  to 
the  barrel  and  also  known  as  the  Maltese  cross. 

STEADY  PINS.     Pins  used  to  secure  two  pieces  of  metal  in  rela- 
tive positions,  as  a  bridge  and  plate. 

STEEL.  Iron,  when  combined  with  a  small  portion  of  carbon.  The 
vaneties  of  «teel  are  very  great.  Puddled  steel  is  made  from  pig  iron  bv 
a  modification  of  the  puddling  process.  Cast  steel  is  made  from  wrought 

iron  or  blister  steel 
by  mixing  it  with 
powdered  charcoal, 
after  which  it  is  melt- 
ed in  a  crucible,  cast 
into  ingots  and  rolled 
or  hammered  into 
plates  or  bars.  Blister 
steel  is  made  from 
w  rought  iron  by  inter- 
laying it  with  char- 
*coal  and  keeping  it  at 
a  high  temperature 
Fig.  297,  for  a  number  of  days. 

Bessemer  steel  is  made  from  the  liquid  cast  iron  as  it  comes  from  the 
smelting  furnace  by  blowing  air  into  it,  thus  burning  out  a  portion  of  the 
carbon. 

To  Anneal  Steel.  There  are  nearly  as  many  methods  of  annealing  as 
there  are  workmen  The  commonest  methods  are  as  follows:  Heat  to 
a  dull  red,  bury  in  warm  iron  filings  or  ashes,  and  allowing  the  article  to 
cool  very  gradually.  Another  method  is  to  heat  the  piece  as  slowly  as 
possible,  and  when  at  a  low  red  heat  put  it  between  two  pieces  of  dry 
board  and  screw  them  tightly  in  a  vise.  The  steel  burns  its  way  into 
the  wood,  and  on  coming  together  around  it  they  form  a  practically  air- 
tight charcoal  bed.  Brannt  gives  the  following  method,  which  he  says 
will  make  steel  so  soft  that  it  can  be  worked  like  copper:  Pulverize  beef 
bones,  mix  them  with  equal  parts  of  loam  and  calves'  hair  and  stir  the 
mixture  into  a  thick  paste  with  water.  Apply  a  coat  of  this  to  the  steel 
and  place  it  in  a  crucible,  cover  this  with  another,  fasten  the  two 
together  with  wire  and  close  the  joint  hermetically  with  clay.  Then  put 
the  crucible  in  the  fire  and  heat  slowly.  When  taken  from  the  fire  let  it 
cool  by  placing  it  in  ashes.  On  opening  the  crucible  the  steel  will  be 
found  so  soft  that  it  can  be  engraved  like  copper. 

To  Anneal  Small  Steel  Pieces.  Place  the  articles  from  -which  you 
desire  to  draw  the  temper  into  a  common  iron  clock  key.      Fill  around 


835  Steer 

it  with  brass  or  iron  filings,  and  then  plug  up  the  open  end  with  a  steel 
iron  or  brass  plug,  made  to  lit  closely.  Take  the  handle  of  the  key  with 
your  pliers  and  hold  its  pipe  into  the  blaze  of  a  lamp  till  red  hot,  then  let 
it  cool  gradually.  When  sufficiently  cold  to  handle,  remove  the  plug, 
and  you  will  find  the  article  with  its  temper  fully  drawn,  but  in  all  other 
respects  just  as  it  was  before.  The  reason  for  having  the  article  thus 
plugged  up  while  passing  it  through  the  heating  and  cooling  process  is, 
that  springing  always  results  from  the  action  of  changeable  currents  of 
atmosphere.  The  temper  may  be  drawn  from  cylinders  staffs,  pinions, 
or  any  other  delicate  pieces  by  this  mode  with  perfect  safety. 

Hardening  and  Tempering  Steel.  The  process  of  heating  steel  to  a 
red  heat  and  immediately  chilling  it  is  the  same  among  all  workmen,  but 
the  agents  employed  for  chilling  are  very  numerous.  The  receipts  here 
gfiven  are  from  various  sources,  and  the  reader  must  adopt  the  one  which 
he  finds  on  trial,  is  the  best  adapted  to  liis  wants. 

In  all  cases  the  object  should  be  heated  to  a  red  heat  before  plung- 
ing. If  an  object  to  be  hardened  is  long  and  slender,  it  should 
invariably  be  inserted  in  the  hardening  compound  end-wise,  otherwise  it 
will  come  out  warped  and  distorted.  The  same  rule  applies  to  thin  or 
flat  objects.  A  preparation  is  used  in  hardening,  consisting  of  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  wheat  flour,  two  of  salt  and  four  of  water.  The  steel  to  be 
hardened,  is  to  be  heated  sufficiently,  dipped  into  the  mixture,  to  be 
coated  therewith,  then  raised  to  a  red  glow,  and  dropped  into  cold  soft 
water.  Another  method  is  to  raise  the  object  to  the  required  heat  and 
then  drop  it  into  a  mixture  of  ten  parts  of  mutton  suet,  two  parts  of  sal- 
ammoniac,  five  parts  resin  and  thirty-five  parts  olive  oil.  Oil,  tallow, 
beeswax  and  resin  are  also  employed  for  hardening.  If  an  intense  brittle 
hardness  is  desirable,  drop  the  object  into  mercury  or  nitric  acid.  In  heat- 
ing very  small  or  thin  objects,  they  should  be  placed  between  two  thin 
pieces  of  charcoal  and  the  whole  brought  to  the  required  heat.  In  this 
way  you  avoid  uneven  heating  and  hence  it  will  be  uniformly  tempered. 
When  it  is  desirable  to  harden  an  article  without  discoloring  its  surface, 
it  should  be  placed  in  a  metal  tube  or  bowl  of  a  clay  pipe,  and  surrounded 
with  charcoal  that  has  been  previously  heated  to  expel  all  moisture,  and 
when  raised  to  the  proper  heat  the  whole  should  be  immersed  in  the 
hardening  liquid. 

Mat  for  Steel.  The  article  to  be  treated  must  first  be  ground  flat 
and  free  from  scratches  in  the  usual  manner.  When  this  is  accom- 
plished take  oil  stone  powder,  mix  it  with  oil  and  then  add  a  little  blue- 
stone  powder.  Grinding  is  performed  best  upon  a  composition  or  iron 
plate,  or  a  file  of  the  same  material ;  glass  is  not  as  well  suited  for  the 
purpose.  A  large  quantity  of  grinding  powder  and  oil  should  be  used. 
Very  hard  articles  take  a  good  mat  grinding  with  difficulty,  and  when- 
ever possible  it  is  advisable  to  anneal  them  blue. 


steel. 


336 


Do  not  press  too  hard  in  grinding*  the  small  grains  of  oilstone  should 
assume  a  rolling  motion,  wherebj  they  will  to  a  certain  extent,  wear  hol- 
lows with  their  sharp  edges  in  the  surface  of  the  steel,  all  of  which 
together  will  impart  the  handsome,  mat  appearance.  If  too  much  pres- 
sure is  brought  to  bear,  and  the  grinding  material  is  too  dry,  it  will  cake 
on  the  steel  and  produce  the  disagreeable  scratched  surface  so  often  seen. 

The  quantity  of  bluestone  necessary  for  grinding  can  be  scraped  ofi 
from  a  large  piece,  after  which  the  scrapings  must  be  thoroughly  crushed. 
The  oilstone  powder  must  not  be  too  fine  and  should  be  of  uniform 
grain.    The  proportions  are  i  part  of  bluestone  to  4  of  oilstone  powder. 

Tempering.  Before  tempering,  the  surface  of  the  object  must  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  freed  from  grease  by  the  application  of  oilstone 
dust,  emery,  or  some  like  scouring  agent.  The  object  should  not  be 
handled  with  the  fingers  after  cleaning,  or  it  will  be  difficult  to  obtain 
the  requisite  tint.  The  following  table  by  Stodart  will  be  valuable  to 
the  student : 


1 

430°  F 
450°  F 
470°  F 
490°  F 
500°  F 
520°  F 
530°  F 
550°  F 
570°  F 
590°  F 
610°  F 
630°  F 

Very  Pale  Straw  Yellow 

220°  C 

2 

A  Shade  Darker  Yellow 

235°  C 

3 

Darker  Straw  Yellow 

245°  C 

4 

Still  Darker  Straw  Yellow 

255°  C 

5 

Brown  Yellow . 

260°  C 

6 

7 

Yellow  tinged  with  Purple 

Light   Purple 

270°  C 
275°  C 

8 

Dark  Purple .. . 

290°  C 

9 
10 

Dark  Blue 

Paler  Blue 

300°  C 
310°  C 

11 

Still  Paler  Blue 

320°  C 

12 

Light  Bluish  Green 

335°  C 

After  letting  an  object  down  to  the  required  color  it  should  be  allowed 
to  cool  gradually,  and  no  artificial  means  used  to  hasten  the  cooling.  A 
piece  of  steel  may  be  let  down  to  the  same  color  several  times  without 
in  any  way  injuring  it  or  altering  its  properties.  Tempering  of  small 
articles  is  performed  satisfactorily  by  means  of  the  bluing  pan,  (See 
Fig.  38).  Small  articles  are  also  tempered  by  placing  them  in  a  vessel, 
say  a  large  spoon,  covering  them  with  oil  and  heating  them  to  the  requis- 
ite degree.  This  is  a  favored  method  of  tempering  balance  staflfs  and 
similar  articles.  The  temper  is  usually  judged  by  the  color  of  the 
smoke;  Saunier  gives  the  following  rule:  When  smoke  is  first  seen  to 
rise,  the  temper  is  dark  yellow  (or  No,  2).  Smoke  more  abundant  and 
darker  (No.  5).  Black  smoke  still  thicker  (No.  7).  Oil  takes  fire  when 
lighted  paper  is  presented  to  it  at  No.  9.  After  this  the  oil  takes  fire  of 
itself  and  continues  to  bum.  If  the  whole  of  the  oil  is  allowed  to  burn 
away  No,  1 2  is  reached. 


337 


Steel. 


The  Color  of  Steel  at  Various  Degrees  of  Temperature.  The  fol- 
lowing table  gives  the  temperature  corresponding  to  the  various  colors 
of  steel  when  heated. 


980° 
1290° 
1470° 
1650° 
1830° 
2010° 
2190° 
2370° 
25500 


Incipient  Red 

Dull  Red 

Incipient  Cherry  Red 

Cherry  Red 

Clear  Cherry  Red... 

Deep   Orange 

Clear   Orange 

White 

Bright   White 


525° 

C 

700° 

C 

800° 

c 

900° 

c 

1000°  C 

1100° 

c 

1200° 

c 

1300° 

c 

1400° 

c 

Combined  Hardening  and  Tempering.  M.  Caron,  with  a  view  to 
combining  the  two  operations  of  hardening  and  tempering,  suggested 
that  the  temperature  of  the  water  used  for  hardening,  be  heated  to  a  pre- 
determined degree.  Thus  the  requisite  temper  may  be  given  to  gun- 
lock  springs  by  heating  the  water  in  which  they  are  hardened  to  55°  C, 
or  130°  F. 

To  Work  Hard  St< «!.  If  steel  is  rather  hard  under  the  hammer, 
when  heated  to  the  proper  cherry  red,  it  may  be  covered  with  salt  and 
hammered  to  about  the  shape  desired.  More  softness  can  then  be 
obtained,  if  required  to  give  a  further  finish  to  the  shape,  by  sprinkling 
it  with  a  mixture  of  salt,  blue  vitriol,  sal-ammoniac,  saltpeter  and  alum  ; 
make  cherry  red  again,  sprinkle  with  this  mixture,  and  hammer  into 
shape.  This  process  may  be  repeated  until  entirely  finished.  Whrn 
ready,  the  steel  is  hardened  in  a  solution  of  the  same  mixture.  This 
method  is  recommended  by  prominent  workers. 

To  Remove  Rust.  Kerosene  oil  (refined  petroleum),  or  benzine 
are  the  best  agents  for  the  removal  of  rust,  where  the  object  is  not  pitted. 
When  pitted,  however,  it  can  only  be  removed  by  mechanical  means 
such  as  scouring  with  emery  powder  and  oil. 

To  Prevent  Rust.  Rub  the  article  with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  oil, 
or  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  carbolic  acid  and  olive  oil,  or  with  plum- 
bago. 


Anti-rust  Varnish  for  Steel.  The  rusting  of  steel  and  iron  tools  and 
instruments  is  very  perfectly  prevented  by  coating  them  with  a  varnish 
made  by  dissolving  i  part  white  wax  in  15  parts  benzine,  and  applying 
with  a  brush.  The  very  thin  layer  of  wax  forms  a  perfect  covering  for 
bright  tools  and  when  desired  is  very  easily  removed. 


Steel.  Ssj6 

Browning  or  Bronzing  for  Steel.  Aqua  fortis  and  sweet  spirits 
niter,  each  half  an  ounce,  sulphate  copper  2  ounces,  water  30  ounces, 
tincture  muriate  of  iron  i  ounce.     Mix. 

To  Protect  Steel  from  Rust.  Immerse  in  a  solution  of  carbonate 
of  potash  for  a  few  minutes  and  it  will  not  rust  for  jears,  not  even  when 
exposed  to  damp  atmosphere. 

To  Temper  Small  Steel  Articles.  The  tempering  of  small  drills, 
for  drilling  holes  in  arbors,  staffs,  etc.,  which  we  find  are  very  hard  and 
difficult  to  perforate,  may  be  effected  in  the  following  manner:  After 
having  filed  the  drill  to  its  proper  size  (being  careful  not  to  flatten  the 
cutting  face),  you  then  warm  it  moderately,  not  allowing  it  to  become 
red,  and  run  it  into  borax.  The  drill  is  thus  coated  over  with  a  crust  of 
borax  and  secluded  from  the  air.  Now  it  may  be  hardened  by  heating 
it  only  cherry  red;  after  this  it  is  inserted  into  a  piece  of  borax,  or  what 
is  better  still,  plunged  into  mercury;  taking  care  not  to  breathe  the 
mercury  fumes.  Drills  prepared  in  this  way,  without  being  brittle,  will 
become  exceedingly  hard  and  the  watchmaker  will  be  enabled  to  drill 
articles  which  could  not  otherwise  be  perforated  with  a  drill.  Do  not 
use  broken  broaches  to  make  your  drills,  as  the  steel  in  them  is  often 
burned,  rendering  the  metal  unfit  for  use  in  small  tools.  In  order  to 
make  the  quality  of  your  drill  a  certainty,  always  take  a  new  piece  of 
round  steel  for  the  purpose. 

To  Harden  Steel  in  Petroleum.  According  to  B.  Morgossy,  the 
articles  to  be  hardened  are  first  heated  in  a  charcoal  fire,  and,  after 
thoroughly  rubbing  with  ordinary  washing  soap,  heated  to  a  cherry  red. 
In  this  condition  they  are  plunged  into  petroleum ;  ignition  of  the  petro- 
leum need  not  be  feared  if  no  flame  is  near  at  hand.  Articles  hardened 
by  this  method  show  no  crack,  do  not  warp  if  plunged  endwise,  and  after 
hardening  remain  nearly  white,  so  they  can  be  blued  without  further 
preparation. 

Hardening  Liquids.  If  water  is  used  for  hardening,  32°  F.  will  be 
found  about  right  for  the  sized  articles  hardened  by  watchmakers,  and  if 
the  article  is  very  small,  ice  may  be  added  to  the  water.  A  solution  com- 
posed of  i  quart  of  water,  i^  lbs.  of  sal-ammoniac,  10  oz.  of  refined 
borax,  1]^  ozs.  red  wine,  is  used  extensively  for  fine  cutlery.  A  mixture 
of  I  lb.  of  resin,  3  ozs.  of  lard,  ^^  lb.  train  oil  and  ^  oz.  of  assafoetida  is 
said  to  be  excellent  for  fine  steel  work. 

Directions  for  Plunging  when  Hardening.  Thin  articles,  as  steel 
plates,  or  articles  of  small  diameter,  such  as  drills,  should  always  be 
plunged  into  the  hardening  compound,   end  or  edge  foremost  to  avoid 


330  Stogden. 

warping.  If  an  article  is  thicker  on  one  side  tiian  the  other,  as  a  knife 
blade,  the  thick  side  should  enter  the  compound  first.  Heat  the  article 
only  as  far  as  you  wish  to  harden  it  and  immerse  it  as  far  as  it  has  been 
made  red  hot. 

Tempering  by  Electricity.  Watch  springs  have  of  late  years  been 
successfully  tempered  with  the  aid  of  electricity.  The  steel  ribbon  is 
passed  through  a  bath  of  oil  and  an  electric  current  of  sufficient  strength 
to  keep  it  at  the  proper  heat  is  passed  through  the  ribbon.  The  heating 
is  thus  effected  without  contact  with  the  atmosphere  and  the  spring  is 
not  liable  to  blister  as  inordinary  methods.  The  temper  is  drawn  in  the 
same  manner  and  the  heat  can  be  controlled  to  a  nicety  and  is  uniform 
throughout.    The  spring  is  then  finished  by  means  of  rolls. 

Glass  Polisher  for  Steel.  French  plate  glass,  ground  on  one  side, 
makes  a  good  polisher  for  flat  work.  A  piece  four  inches  square,  nicely 
finished  on  the  edge,  is  about  the  right  size. 

Tempering  Magnets.  M.  Ducoetet  uses  the  following  process  for 
tempering  and  magnetizing  steel  to  be  used  as  magnets.  Two  soft  iron 
pole  pieces  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  water  tight  vessel  and  are  con- 
nected with  the  poles  of  a  powerful  electro-magnet.  The  .vessel  is 
partially  filled  with  water,  and  oil  is  poured  into  the  vessel,  which  floats 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  red  hot  bar  is  then  passed  through 
the  liquids  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  magnets.  This  softens  the 
steel  without  depriving  it  of  its  power  of  being  magnetized. 

To  Engrave  Name  on  Steel  Tools.  Coat  the  tool  or  article,  if  made 
of  iron  or  steel,  with  a  thin  layer  of  wax,  draw  the  name,  initials  or 
design  through  the  wax,  exposing  the  metal,  and  place  the  tool  in  a  mix- 
ture of  6  parts  by  weight  of  water  and  i  part  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  a  few 
hours  remove,  and  if  etched  sufficiently,  wash  in  clean  water  and  dissolve 
the  wax  by  heat. 

STOGDEN,  MATTHEW.  Inventor  of  the  half-quarter  repeating 
mechanism  most  used  in  English  watches.  He  died  in  abject  poverty, 
about  1770,  at  an  advanced  age. 

STOP  WORK.  The  mechanism  which  prevents  the  overwinding  ot 
a  timepiece. 

STRAIGHT  LINE  LEVER.  That  form  of  a  lever  escapement  in 
which  the  escape  wheel  arbor,  pallet  and  balance  staff  are  all  planted  in 
a  straight  line,  as  in  Fig.  266. 


stud. 


340 


STUD.  A  small  piece  of  metal  which  is  slotted  to  receive  the 
outer  coil  of  the  hair  spring.  Any  short  rod  or  roller  projecting  from 
a  part  of  a  machine  is  termed  a  stud.  To  set  with  projecting  jewels 
or  pieces  of  metal,  as  watch  cases  are  sometimes  ornamented. 

SULLY,  HENRY.  Born  in  1680  and  died  in  1728.  A  celebrated 
watchmaker  and  the  author  of  a  work  on  horology.  He  was  an  Eng- 
lishman by  birth,  though  he  resided  mostof  the  time  in  France,  where 
he  died. 


Fig.  293. 

SUNK  SECONDS.  A  dial  in  which  the  second  bit,  as  it  is  called, 
is  cut  out  and  sunk  below  the  surface  of  the  dial  itself,  thus  gaining 
space  for  the  hour  and  minute  hands. 

SURPRISE  PIECE.  The  four-armed  piece  secured  to  the  quar- 
ter snail  which  is  free  to  move  within  certain  limits,  and  prevents  the 
rack  from  reaching  the  snail.    See  Repairing  Repeating  Watches. 

SWEEP  SECONDS.  A  movement  in  which  a  long  seconds  hand 
moves  from  the  center  of  the  dial  instead  of  at  the  bottom,  as  in  chro- 
nographs and  split  seconds  watches. 

TABLE.  The  roller  of  a  lever  escapement  that  carries  the  im- 
pulse pin.  The  upper  flat  surface  of  a  diamond,  or  other  precious 
stone,  the  sides  of  which  are  cut  in  angles. 


Fig.  2.9.9. 

TAIL  STOCK.     The  sliding  block  or  support  in  a  lathe  that  car- 
ries the  tailscrew  and  back-center,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  299. 


3U 


Tavan. 


Half  Open  Tailstock.     The  half  open  tailstock  shown  in  Fig.  300,  is 
cut  away  so  that  the  spindles  can   be   laid   in,   instead  of  being  passed 


Fig.  30(h 
through  the  holes.     This   fixture  will   be  found  exceedingly  convenient 
when  several  spindles  are  to  be  used  for  drilling,  counterboring  and  cham- 
fering. 

Screw  Tailstock.  This  attachment  is  very  convenient  for  heavy 
drilling,  the  spindle 
being  moved  by  a 
screw  with  hand 
wheel  attached,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  301. 

Traverse  Spindle 
Tailstock.  This 
attachment,  shown  in 
F i g.  302,  will  be 
found  very  conven- 
ient for  straight  drill- 
ing. Where  the  watch-  ^'■y-  •'"'• 

maker  has  a  great  deal   of  drilling  to  do,  he  will    find  this   attachment 
invaluable. 

TAVAN,  ANTOINE.  A  celebrated  French  watchmaker  who  resided 
the  better  part  of  his  life  in  Geneva.  Born  at  Aost,  France,  in  1749  and 
died  at  Geneva  in  1836. 

TAVERNIER,  LOUIS.  A  celebrated  Parisian  watchmaker  who 
lived  about  1800.  lie  studied  the  cylinder  escapement  with  great  care 
and  with  considerable  success. 

TESTING  NEEDLES.  Small  strips  of  steel  with  gold  points, 
usually  running  from  4k.  to  20k.  inclusive,  and  used  in  conjunction  with 
a  touchstone  for  determining  the  quality  of  gold.    The  gold  to  be  tested  is 


Third  Wheel.  342 

first  rubbed  upon  the  touchstone,  and  the  needle  which  most  closely 
approximates  to  it  in  quality,  in  the  judgment  of  the  operator,  is  also 
rubbed  upon  the  stone.  The  two  marks  are  then  treated  with  nitric 
acid  and  the  difference  in  color  indicates  the  difference  in  quality  of  the 
two  marks.     See  Touchstone. 


Fig.  302. 

THIRD  WHEEL.  The  wheel  in  the  train  of  a  watch  which  lies  be- 
tween the  center  and  fourth  wheels. 

THIOUT,  M.  Watchmaker  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  In  1741  he 
published  a  work  called  "Traite  d'Horlogerie,"  in  two  volumes. 

THOMAS,  SETH.  One  of  the  early  American  manufacturers  of 
clocks.  In  iSio  Eli  Terry  sold  out  his  clock  factory  to 
Seth  Thomas  and  Silas  Hoadley,  two  of  his  leading  work, 
men,  and  this  factory  was  the  leading  one  for  many  years. 
The  present  corporation,  known  as  the  Seth  Thomas 
Clock  Company,  is  the  direct  successor  of  this  humble 
beginning.  March  31,  1853,  the  Seth  Thomas  Clock  Com- 
pany was  organized  with  a  capital  of  $75,000.  Seth 
Seth  Thomas.  Thomas  died  January  20,  1859,  being  73  years  of  age. 

THREE-QUARTER  PLATE.  A  watch  in  which  enough  of  the 
upper  plate  is  cut  away  to  allow  of  the  balance  vibrating  on  a  level  with 
the  plate. 

TIME.  The  measure  of  duration.  A  particular  period  of  duration. 
Time  is  measured  by  the  interval  between  two  successive  transits  of  a 
celestial  body  over  the  same  meridian ;  if  measured  by  the  sun,  it  is 
called  solar  time,  or  if  by  a  star,  sidereal  time. 

Absolute  Time.  Time  irrespective  of  local  standards  or  epochs; 
time  reckoned  for  all  places  from  some  one  common  epoch;  as  all 
spectators  see  a  lunar  eclipse  at  the  same  instant  of  absolute  time. 


343 


Time. 


Apparent  Time.  Time  as  reckoned  by  the  sun ;  the  inst::nt  of  the 
transit  of  the  sun's  center  over  the  meridian  constituting  I2  o'clock. 

Astronomical  Time.  Mean  solar  time,  reckoned  by  counting  the 
hours  continuously  up  to  twenty-four  from  one  noon  up  to  the  next. 

Civil  Time,  The  reckoning  of  time  for  the  common  purposes  of  life 
The  division  of  time  into  years,  months,  days,  hours  and  seconds. 

Sidereal  Time.  Time  regulated  by  the  transit,  over  the  meridian  of 
a  place  of  the  first  point  of  Aries,  or  the  vernal  equinox,  and  chiefly 
used  in  astronomical  observations. 

The  sidereal  day  is  3  m.,  56  s.  shorter  than  the  mean  solar  day.  The 
pendulum  of  a  clock,  to  show  sidereal  time,  must  be  a  trifle  shorter  than 
that  of  one  used  to  show  mean  time,  both  clocks  having  the  same  train. 
On  or  about  the  15th  of  April  the  two  clocks  would  agree,  but  from  that 
time  on  there  would  be  a  divergence  of  3  m.,  56  s.  per  day.  In  the 
absence  of  a  transit  instrument  and  a  table  giving  the  right  ascension  of 
particular  stars,  Britten  advises  the  selection  of  a  window  having  a 
southern  aspect,  from  which  a  chimney,  or  a  steeple,  or  any  other  fixed 


Stars  Gain 

Stars  Gaia 

Days. 

Days, 

Hours, 

Minutes. 

Seconds. 

Hours. 

Minutes. 

Seconds. 

1 

0 

3 

56 

11 

0 

43 

15 

2 

0 

7 

52 

12 

0 

57 

11 

3 

0 

11 

48 

13 

0 

51 

7 

4 

0  . 

15 

44 

14 

0 

55 

3 

5 

0 

19 

39 

15 

0 

58 

58 

6 

0 

23 

35 

16 

2 

54 

7 

0 

27 

31 

17 

6 

50 

8 

0 

31 

27 

18 

10 

46 

U 

0 

35 

23 

19 

14 

42 

10 

0 

39 

19 

20 

18 

38 

point,  may  be  seen.  To  the  side  of  the  window  attach  a  thin  plate  of 
brass  having  a  small  hole  in  it,  in  such  a  manner  that  by  looking  through 
the  hole  toward  the  edge  of  the  elevated  object,  some  of  the  fixed  stars 
may  be  seen ;  the  progress  of  one  of  these  being  watched,  the  instant  it 
vanishes  behind  the  fixed  point  a  signal  is  made  to  a  person  observing 
the  clock,  who  then  notes  the  exact  time  at  which  the  star  disappears, 
and  on  the  following  night  the  same  star  will  vanish  behind  the  same 
object  3  m.,  56  s.  sooner.  If  a  clock  mark  10  h.  when  the  observation  is 
made,  when  the  star  vanishes  the  following  night  it  should  indicate  3  m., 
56  s.  less  than  10  h.     If  several  cloudy  nights  have  rendered  it  impossible 


Timing.  344 

to  compare  the  clock  with  the  star,  it  will  then  be  necessary  to  multiply 
3  m  ,  56  s.  by  the  number  of  days  that  have  elapsed  since  the  observation, 
and  the  product  deducted  from  the  hour  the  clock  then  indicates  gives 
the  time  the  clock  should  show.  The  same  star  can  only  be  observed 
during  a  few  weeks,  for,  as  it  gains  nearly  a  half  hour  a  week,  it  will,  in 
a  short  time,  come  to  the  meridian  in  broad  daylight  and  become  invis- 
ible; to  continue  the  observation,  another  star  must  be  selected.  In 
making  the  observation,  care  must  be  taken  that  a  planet  is  not  observed 
instead  of  a  star;  Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn  are  those  most  likely  to 
occasion  this  error,  more  especially  Saturn,  which,  from  being  the  most 
distant  of  the  three,  resembles  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude.  The  planets 
may,  however,  be  easily  distinguished,  for  being  comparatively  near  the 
earth,  they  appear  larger  than  the  stars ;  their  light  also  is  steady  because 
reflected,  while  the  fixed  stars  scintillate  and  have  a  twinkling  light.  A 
sure  means  of  distinguishing  between  them,  is  to  watch  ?  star  attentively 
for  a  few  nights ;  if  it  change  its  place  with  regard  to  the  other  stars,  it  is 
a  planet.     See  Transit  Instrument. 

Solar  Time.  Sun  time.  Time  marked  by  the  diurnal  revolution  of 
the  earth  with  regard  to  the  sun.  A  mean  solar  day  is  the  average 
length  of  all  the  solar  days  in  the  year.  The  difference  between  true  and 
mean  time  is  called  the  equation  of  time.  There  are  only  four  days  in 
the  year  when  the  apparent  and  mean  time  are  the  same,  and  the  equa- 
tion of  time  nothing.  These  are  December  24th,  April  15th,  June  15th, 
and  August  31st.  Between  December  24th  and  April  15th,  and  between 
June  15th  and  August  31st,  the  apparent  is  always  before  the  mean  time, 
whilst  in  the  remaining  interval  it  is  later. 

TIMING.     See  Adjustment. 

TIMING  SCREWS.     Quarter  screws  of  a  compensation  balance. 

TOMPION,  THOMAS.     Born  in  163S  and  died  in  1713.     He  was 
buried  in  Westminister  Abbey. 

TOUCHSTONE.      A    piece    of   black    basaltic 
rock,  obtained  chiefly  from  Silesia  and  used  for  test- 
ing the  quality  of  gold.    The  piece  of  gold,  or  metal 
to  be  tested,  is  drawn  upon  the  surface  of  the  touch- 
stone, and  the  streak  left  is  treated  with  nitric  acid. 
Nitric  acid   eats    away  the    streak,  if  it  is  brass  or 
Tlws.  Tompion.        ^^y  similar   alloy,  while  if   gold  only   the   alloy   in 
the  gold  is  attacked.    Testing  needles  of  known  alloy  are  then  rubbed 
on  the  surface  of  the  touchstone,  and  treated  with  the  acid,  and  a  com- 
parison made.     See   Testing"  Needles. 


345  Tourbiliion. 

TOURBILLION.  This  arrangement  of  the  train  and  escape- 
ment is  the  invention  of  A.  L.  Breguet  and  consists  of  a  h'ght  steel 
framework  in  which  the  escapement  of  a  watch  was  mounted  upon 
the  fourth  pinion,  taking  the  place  of  the  fourth  wheel.  By  this 
arrangement  the  escapement  revolved,  thus  eliminating  the  position 
errors  to  a  great  extent.  The  arrangement  of  Brequet  has  been 
simplified  by  Bonniksen  and  is  known  as  the  Karrousel  watch. 

TRAIN.  The  train  of  a  watch  or  clock  is  the  wheels  and  pinions 
through  which  the  motive  power  is  transmitted  to  the  escapement. 
The  names  of  the  various  parts  in  a  going  barrel  are  the  barrel, 
which  takes  the  place  of  the  first  or  great  wheel,  the  second  wheel, 
which  has  been  given  the  name  of  center  wheel  because  it  occupies 
a  central  position  in  the  plate  of  the  movement.  Following  the  cen- 
ter wheel  is  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  wheels  respectively,  the  latter 
one  being  known  as  the  escape  wheel.  The  pinions  are  known  by 
the  same  name  as  the  respective  wheels  which  are  mounted  upon 
them.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the  size  of  the  train  as  large  as  possi- 
ble, preserving  a  systematical  proportion  between  the  first  and  last  of 
the  train,  that  is  one  wheel  should  be  no  larger  than  the  one  imme- 
diately preceding  it,  the  general  rule  being  to  have" each  succeeding 
wheel  smaller.  The  center  wheel  makes  a  revolution  in  one  hour, 
and  it  is  from  this  that  the  number  of  vibrations  are  reckoned.  The 
number  of  vibrations  per  hour  may  be  found  by  multiplying  together 
the  number  of  teeth  in  the  center,  third  and  fourth  wheels  and  mul- 
tiplying this  product  by  twice  the  number  of  teeth  in  the  escape 
wheel  and  dividing  this  last  product  by  the  product  of  the  number 
of  leaves  in  the  third,  fourth  and  escape  pinions.  In  watches  show- 
ing seconds  the  proportion  between  the  center  and  fourth  wheels 
must  be  as  one  to  sixty,  because  it  is  this  pinion  that  carries  the  sec- 
onds hand.  This  formula  for  determining  the  vibrations  applies 
equally  well  to  any  of  the  escapements,  whether  watch  or  clock. 
The  mainspring  should  develop  enough  turns  to  run  the  timepiece  at 
least  thirty  hours.  The  train  of  a  watch  may  be  tested  by  sharpen- 
ing a  piece  of  pegwood  and  with  it  pressing  on  the  end  of  the  pinion 
pivot  into  which  the  wheel  depths,  when  its  condition  may  be  judged. 
All  other  things  being  equal,  the  train  having  the  largest  wheels  and 
pinions  with  the  greatest  number  of  teeth  and  leaves,  will  transmit 
the  motive  power  most  uniformly  and  with  the  least  friction.  In  the 
finest  trains,  the  wheels  should  be  poised,  or  at  least  very  near  it,  this 
item  being  the  more  important  as  we  approach  the  escapement. 

TRANSIT  INSTRUMENT.  A  telescope  mounted  at  right 
angles  to  a  horizontal  axis.  Used  in  connection  with  a  clock  or  watch 
for  obtaining  the  time  of  transit  of  a  heavenly  body  over  the  meridian  ot 


Transit  Instrument. 


816 


a  place.  To  watchmakers  who  make  any  pretense  of  a  knowledge  of 
their  business,  nothing  can  be  more  desirable  or  useful.  A  vague  im- 
pression exists  among  them,  that  the  transit  instrument,  used  for  this 
purpose,  is  so  closely  allied  to  the  scientific,  as  to  be  serviceable  only  in 
the  hands  of  the  professional  astronomer.  This  fact,  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  the  high  cost  of  these  instruments  hitherto,  fully  accounts  for 
the  reason  of  their  unfrequent  employment. 

These  two  causes,  preventing  the  more  general  use  of  the  transit,  no 
longer  remain,  whatever  may  have  been  their  force  in  the  past.  By  an 
improvement  in  the  mode  of  mounting,  a  ready  means  is  furnished  for 
setting  up  and  placing  the  instrument  in  the  meridian.  Furnished  with 
each  transit  are  full  printed  instructions,  describing  each  part  in  detail, 
the  method  of  setting  up,  and  taking  observations,  the  whole  of  which  is 
so  plain  and  simple  that  every  purchaser  is  surprised  and  gratified  to 
find  what  was  supposed  to  be  difficult  so  easy  to  perform. 

The  principle  involved  in  the  use 
of  the  transit  instrument  is,  that  when 
in  proper  position,  the  center  vertical 
line  in  the  field  of  view  of  the  tele- 
scope, shall  be  exactly  on  and  repre- 
sent the  meridian,  or  true  north  and 
south  line,  of  the  place  of  observa- 
tion. Hence,  from  the  observed 
time  of  any  heavenly  body  crossing 
the  center  or  meridian  line,  may  be 
determined  the  error  of  the  time- 
piece used.  The  passage  of  any 
'  heavenly  body  across  the  meridian 
line  is  called  its  transit. 

The  stand  on  which  the  instrument 
rests,  consists  of  two  circular  plates 
of  metal,  the  lower  of  which,  A, 
is  to  be  screwed  to  a  foundation  of 
wood  or  stone;  screw  holes  being 
provided  for  that  purpose.  The 
upper  plate,  B,  turns  upon  the  lower  by  means  of  a  pivot,  and  the  two 
are  clamped  together  by  a  clamping  screw.  In  the  upper  surface  of 
the  plate  B,  are  sockets  for  receiving  the  three  points  on  which  the 
frame  of  the  instrument  rests. 

When  the  clamping  screw  is  loosened,  [the  entire  instrument  may  be 
easily  rotated  horizontally  upon  the  lower  plate  A,  and  when  the  clamp- 
ing screw  Is  tightened,  the  whole  is  rigidly  held  in  position. 

The  telescope  is  ten  inches  long  and  fitted  with  an  axis,  the  two  pivots 
of  which  rest  in  the  top  of  the  frame  F.  At  X  is  a  sliding  tube,  which 
adjusts  the  focus  of  the  object  glass.     The  telescope  is  furnished  with  a 


Fig.  305. 


347  Transit  Instrument. 

diagonal  eye-piece,  E,  which  is  made  movable  in  a  sliding  tube  at  Y,  to 
adjust  the  focus  of  the  eye-piece.  Small  screens  of  colored  glass  are 
provided  to  protect  the  eye  from  the  effects  of  the  rays  of  the  sun.  On 
the  axis  of  the  telescope  is  attached  a  declination  circle,  D,  used  only  for 
facilitating  the  finding  of  stars,  when  on  or  near  the  meridian,  but  not 
used  in  taking  observations  of  the  sun.  Upon  the  pivots  of  the  telescope 
is  placed  a  riding  level,  for  the  purpose  of  leveling  the  axis  of  the  tele- 
scope by  means  of  the  leveling  screw  L. 

One  of  the  pivots  of  the  axis  rests  in  a  block  made  moveable  by  the 
horizontal  adjusting  screw. 

The  instrument  must  command  an  unobstructed  view  of  the  north 
star,  and  the  sun  at  noon.  Usually,  the  coping  of  a  brick  or  stone  build- 
ing, easy  of  access,  will  be  found  the  most  convenient,  but  in  the  absence 
of  this,  a  brick  or  stone  pier,  from  sixteen  to  twenty-four  inches  square, 
built  from  four  feet  below  to  four  feet  above  the  ground,  would  be  excel- 
lent, or  a  post  six  inches  or  more  in  thickness,  firmly  set  in  the  ground 
would  answer  a  very  good  purpose.  A  costly  foundation  offers  no  prac- 
tical advantage  and  its  greater  expense  need  not  be  incurred.  At  the 
place  chosen  secure  very  firmly,  a  piece  of  plank  two  or  three  inches 
thick,  of  any  suitable  size,  which  should  be  well  leveled,  and  thoroughly 
painted,  top  and  bottom,  to  protect  it  against  the  action  of  the  weather, 
and  upon  this  plank  screw  the  lower  bed  plate  of  the  instrument.  The 
instrument  may  be  covered  with  a  tight  box,  constructed  to  turn  water 
and  exclude  dust,  or,  if  removed  after  each  observation,  a  tight  cover 
should  be  made  for  the  rotating  stand,  which  must  be  left  in  its 
position. 

The  instrument  is  placed  in  position,  or  on  the  meridian  line,  by  setting 
the  center  line  in  the  field  of  view  of  the  telescope,  on  the  north  star,  at 
the  time  of  night  the  said  star  is  on  the  meridian,  which  time  is  calcu- 
lated for  any  desired  place  and  furnished  in  tabular  form  with  each  tran- 
sit Perfectly  correct  time  for  this  operation,  which  is  very  simple,  is 
not  essential,  but  only  as  near  as  is  in  common  use. 

The  instrument  must  now  remain  unmoved  until  a  range  mark  has 
been  obtained  as  follows : 

On  the  day  succeeding  the  setting  of  the  center  line  on  the  north  star, 
turn  the  telescope  to  the  south,  and  notice  some  small  object  of 
a  permanent  character,  which  the  center  line  bisects.  This  object 
is  called  the  range,  and  may  be  at  any  distance  from  twenty  feet 
to  half  a  mile,  but  two  or  three  hundred  yards  will  be  found  best. 
If  no  convenient  object  can  be  selected,  a  range  may  be  made  by  paint- 
ing a  small  round  spot  on  a  permanent  surface,  at  a  point  where  the  cen- 
ter line  will  bisect  it.  Before  taking  an  observation  the  center  line  must 
always  be  set  exactly  on  the  range  with  the  screw  H,  in  order  to  secure 
an  accurate  adjustment  in  the  meridian.  The  range  may  be  either  north 
or  south,  but  the  latter  is  the  more  convenient. 


Traverse  Spindle  Grinder.  ti^S 

The  purpose  of  the  range  mark  is  to  furnish  a  means  of  keeping  the 
instrument  in  the  meridian  witliout  being  obliged  to  re-set  the  center  line 
on  the  north  star. 

METHOD  OF   TAKING    AN    OBSERVATION   OF  THE    SUN. 

Se't  the  center  line  on  the  range,  if  off  the  same,  and  carefully  level  the 
axis,  a  few  minutes  before  the  sun  comes  in  the  field  of  view,  which  will 
be  about  four  minutes  before  reaching  the  center  line.  As  the  telescope 
is  an  inverting  one,  the  sun  will  appear  to  come  in  from  the  right  hand 
side  and  pass  across  the  field  of  view. 

When  ihejirst^  or  advancing  edge  of  the  sun  intersects  the  center  line, 
the  time  must  be  noted  by  the  watch,  as  in  example.  When  the  sun  has 
passed  entirely  across  the  center  line,  which  takes  about  two  and  a 
quarter  minutes,  note  the  time  when  the  last  edge  intersects  the  center 
line,  as  in  the  same  example. 

Time  of  contact  oi first  edge  of  sun  with  vertical  line ii     43     14.5 

"       "        "  last      "  •'        "  "  "...      II     45     30. 

Divide  by  2 2)23    28    44.5 

11  44    22.2 
Add  correction  (from  table  supplied  with  instrument)...  16     12.5 

12  o    347 
Subtract  12  hours.... 12 

Watch  fast  34  seconds,  7  tenths o    34.7 

After  adding  the  above  correction,  the  difference  between  the  result 
and  12  hours  will  be  the  amount  the  watch  was  fast  or  slow ;  fast,  if  more 
than  12  hours,  and  slow  if  less. 

TRAVERSE  SPINDLE  GRINDER.      This  tool  will  be  lound 

very  useful  for  grinding  cutters, 
lathe  centers,  pump  centers, 
reamers,  counter  sinks,  squar- 
ing up  barrel  arbors  after  hard- 
ening, or  any  hardened  steel 
tool.  In  the  hand  of  an  ingen- 
Fi(].  Ml,:.  ious  workman,  it  will  be  found 

exceedingly  useful,  as  by  its  aid  a  great  variety  of  work  can  be  per- 
formed that  cannot  be  accomplished  without  it.  Fig.  306,  is  the  Moseley 
pattern,  and  is  designed  to  attach  to  the  slide  rest. 

TURNS.     A  small  dead  center  lathe  used  but  little  in  this  country. 

TWEEZERS.  The  watchmaker  will  do  well  to  purchase  tweezers 
that  are  made  of  non-magnetic  material,  as  they  are  no  more  expensive 


349 


Two  Pin  Escapement. 


than  ordinary  ones  of  good  make.  Steel  tweezers  often  become  magnet- 
ized and  by  their  use  you  convey  the  magnetism  to  the  delicate  parts  of 
a  movement.     There  are  several  makes  of  non-magnetic  tweezers  upon 


Fig.  307. 
the  market,  all  of  which  possess  points  of  excellence.     Soldering  tweezers 
are  made  similar  to  Fig.  307,  with   hawk  bill,  for   holding  work  while 
hard  or  soft  soldering.     See  also  Soldering  Forceps. 

TWO  PIN  ESCAPEMENT.  A  variety  of  the  lever  escapement 
having  one  small  gold.pin  in  the  lever  and  two  in  the  table,  and  the 
unlocking  and  impulse  actions  are  divided  between  them. 


UNIVERSAL  HEAD.  The  universal  head,  shown  in  Fig.  308,  nas 
entirely  superseded  the  clumsy  universal  mandrel  in  this  country.  It  is 
more  accurate,  less  clumsy  and  complicated  and  will  perform  the 
same  work.  The  face  plate  is  3)^  inches  in  diameter,  but  by  the  use  of 
two  crescent-shaped  slots,  it  will   hold   anything  in  size  and   shape  of 


Fig.  308. 
watchwork.  The  pump  center  is  operated  from  the  back  by  the  rubber 
knob  and  can  be  used  either  with  or  without  a  spring.  The  jaws,  which 
will  pass  the  center,  are  held  in  position  on  face  plate  by  springs,  and  are 
fastened  from  the  back.  Peep  holes  are  provided  in  these  heads  in  order 
that  the  workman  may  examine  the  back  of  the  work  at  all  times.  In 
the  Moseley  head,  shown  in  Fig.  308,  these  holes  are  of  taper  form.   Fig. 


Unlocking  Resistance.  ^50 

309  shows  a  universal  face  plate  lo  be  used  on  chuck  in  lathe.  It  is 
smaller  and  less  expensive  than  the  universal  head  and  answers 
very  well  for  some  work,  but  cannot 
be  recommended  very  highly,  as  it  is 
not  as  accurate.  The  pump  center  is 
used  to  center  from  the  back  any  object 
confined  in  the  jaws,  but  it  sometimes 
becomes  necessary  to  mount  the  object 
by  means  of  wax  upon  a  plate  and  hold 
the  plate  in  the  jaws.  In  such  a  case 
the  work  must  necessarily  be  centered 
from  the  front.  This  can  be  done  accu- 
rately by  means  of  a  piece  of  pegwood, 
as  ordinarily  done  on  the  lathe,  by  plac- 

...  .     1  J     ,  Fig-  309. 

mg  the  pomt  m  the  center  hole  and  the 

pegwood  resting  on  the  T  rest,  and  observing  if  the  free  end  of  the 

pegwood  remains  stationary.    See,  also,  Centering  Tool. 

UNLOCKING  RESISTANCE.  The  resistance  opposed  to  un- 
locking by  the  adhesion  between  the  locking  faces  of  the  pallets  and 
the  tips  or  the  escape  wheel  teeth,  and  in  the  case  of  lever  pallets  by 
the  draw  of  the  locking  faces. 

VERGE.  The  piece  in  a  watch  or  clock  which  regulates  the 
motion  of  the  escape  wheel  and  allows  one  tooth  to  pass  at  a  time. 
In  a  watch  it  acts  as  a  support  for  the  balance  wheel.  This  name  is 
especially  applied  to  the  recoil  escapement  used  in  the  so-called 
Yankee  clock,  and  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

VERGE  ESCAPEMENT.  This  form  of  escapement  is  shown 
in  Fig.  310,  which  shows  a  plan  of  the  escape  wheel  and  verge  in  their 


Fig.  3.0. 

relative  positions  in  a  watch.    The  inventor  of  this  form  of  escape- 
ment remains  in  obscurity,  but  it  appears  to  have  been  invented  about 


361  V^ernier  Caliper. 

the  year  looo,  and  was  the  sole  escapement  up  to  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  verge  has  served  a  very  good  purpose  in  its  time,  but 
its  lack  of  correct  timekeeping  led  to  its  disuse  as  soon  as  something 
better  appeared.  The  escape  tooth  drops  direct  upon  the  impulse 
plane.  If  the  momentum  of  the  balance  is  sufficient  to  overcome 
the  power  of  the  mainspring  a  recoil  is  the  result,  but  if  not  the  result 
is  a  to  and  fro  motion  just  sufficient  to  escape.  As  shown  in  the 
drawing,  when  the  tooth  in  contact  with  the  right  hand  pallet  leaves 
it  the  tooth  shown  just  below  will  fall  upon  the  left  hand  pallet  and 
impel  the  balance  in  the  opposite  direction.  The  opening  of  the 
pallets  is  usually  ninety  degrees,  that  is,  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
A  workman  who  is  acquainted  with  the  other  escapements  will  have 
but  little  trouble  in  repairing  the  verge.  Fig.  6  shows  the  verge 
clock  escapement. 


VERGE  PIN.  The  pin  upon  which  the  verge  of  an  American 
clock  is  supported.  This  pin  is  usually  mounted  in  a  small  movable 
arm  by  which  the  escapement  action  may  be  corrected. 

VERGE  WIRE.  The  wire  by  which  the  power  is  transmitted  to 
the  pendulum  wire.  In  this  class  of  clock  the  beat  may  be  corrected 
by  slightly  bending  it. 

VERNIER.  A  short  scale  made  to  slide  along  the  divisions  of  a 
graduated  instrument,  as  a  caliper,  for  indicating  parts  of  a  division. 
It  is  so  graduated  that  a  certain  convenient  number  of  its  divisions 
are  just  equal  to  a  certain  number,  either  one  less  or  one  more,  of  the 
divisions  of  the  instrument,  so  that  parts  of  a  division  are  determined 
by  observing  what  line  on  the  vernier  coincides  with  a  line  on  the 
instrument.    See  Gauge, 

VERTICAL  ESCAPEMENT.  An  escapement  in  which  the 
escape  wheel  is  at  right  angles  to  the  balance  staff  or  pallet  axis. 

VIENNA  LIME.  A  pure  anhydrous  lime,  obtained  from  Vienna. 
It  is  extensively  used  for  final  polishing  purposes,  particularly  in  watch 
factories.  The  action  of  Vienna  lime  is  different  from  most  other  pol- 
ishing agents,  for  the  effect  is  not  produced,  as  in  the  case  of  rouge,  by 
simple  abrasion,  for  unless  the  lime  be  used  while  it  is  slacking,  the 
result  will  not  be  satisfactory.  The  material  should,  therefore,  be  kept 
in  air-tight  bottles,  and  only  enough  for  immediate  use  taken  out  at  one 
time.    Take  a  small  lump  from  the  bottle,  slightly  moisten  with  water 


Vulliamy.  353 

and  break  down  with  any  clean  tool.     Spread  the  lime  paste  on  a  box- 
wood slip  and  apply  to  the  article  to  be  polished,  using  quick  strokes. 

VULLIAMY,  BENJAMIN  LEWIS.  He  was  born  in  London,  in 
17S0,  was  grandson  of  Justin  Vulliamy,  a  native  ofSwitzerland,  who  emi- 
grated to  London  and  became  acquainted  with  Benj.  Gray,  of  Pall  Mall, 
married  his  daughter  and  succeeded  to  his  business.  Benj.  Gray  was  clock- 
maker  to  the  Crown  in  the  reign  of  George  II,  and  the  position  has  been 
held  by  the  Vulliamy  family  since  his  death.  Benj.  Lewis  Vulliamy 
was  an  earnest  student  of  horology,  and  was  familiar  with  all  the  works 
of  ancient  and  modern  horologists.  All  of  his  productions  were  remark- 
able for  their  sterling  excellence,  but  the  branch  to  which  he  devoted  the 
largest  portion  of  his  attention  and  time  was  the  construction  of  turret 
clocks,  and  upon  that  subject  he  wrote  several  valuable  pamphlets.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Clockmaker's  Company  in  1S09.  He  served 
every  office  in  the  Court  of  the  Guild,  and  was  five  times  elected  master- 
He  died  January  8,  1854. 

WATCH.  A  small  time-piece  to  be  carried  in  the  pocket.  The  word 
watch  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Saxon  -vceccan,  to  awaken,  which 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  earlier  watches  were  of  the  alarm  type. 
It  is,  however,  much  more  probable  that  the  term  came  originally  from 
the  watches  of  the  night,  and  that  portable  timepieces  were  invented  to 
mark  them. 

Cleaning  and  Repairing.  As  the  movement  is  taken  down,  note 
should  be  taken  of  any  needed  repairs  or  alterations,  either  in  the  watch 
or  case.  See_that  the'movement  is  tight  in  the  case  and  that  the  stem 
turns  easily.  Examine  movement  carefully  with  eye  glass  and  if  a  Swiss 
bridge  movement,  examine  the  depths  of  the  wheels,  see  if  minute  wheel 
pinion  touches  the  dial,  and  if  balance  pivots  have  too  much  side  shake. 
Try  the  side  shake  of  a  Swiss  bridge  with  a  pair  of  fine  and  light  tweezers. 
See  if  the  guard  and  banking  are  correct.  In  a  great  many  Swiss  watches 
and  also  English  watches,  the  jewel  pin  is  too  small  for  the  fork,  and 
often  it  does  not  enter  properly.  Memorize  these  little  things  as  you  go 
along,  and  repair  them  in  this  regular  order.  After  examining  the 
escapement,  let  the  mainspring  down  ;  after  taking  the  movement  out  of 
case,  remove  the  hands  first,  with  a  modern  tool  made  for  that  pur- 
pose, that  does  not  interfere  with  the  dial. 

Now  remove  dial,  and  notice  if  it  fits  right;  if  the  hand  arbors  come 
in  the  center  of  the  holes.  Oftimes  this  can  be  corrected  by  bending  the 
feet  with  a  pair  of  flat  pliers,  so  the  edge  of  the  dial  will  correspond  with 
the  movement  and  the  hand  arbors.  Sometimes,  in  American  watches, 
the  screws  do  not  reach  the  dial  feet;  alter  this  by  turning  the  shoulders 
off  in  lathe,  so  they  will  go  further   in.     If  the  pins  (when  the  dial  is 


353  Watch. 

pinned  on)  are  too  high  above  the  plate,  fill  them  with  a  little  pin  and 
soft  solder,  and  drill  or  punch  new  holes  in  the  proper  place.  When  you 
put  a  new  dial  on  a  Swiss  watch,  where  the  feet  do  not  correspond  with 
the  holes,  cut  off  the  feet  of  new  dial  and  file  or  grind  the  enamel  flat 
around  the  feet  and  grind  the  enamel  away  with  an  emery  wheel,  where 
the  new  feet  are  to  go.  Now  take  a  piece  of  copper  wire,  long  enough 
for  both  feet,  and  the  proper  thickness,  put  it  in  lathe  and  hollow  out 
the  ends  with  a  graver,  so  it  will  hard-solder  flat  on  an  old  piece  of  dial 
copper  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  round.  If  too  large,  put  it  in 
the  lathe  by  the  foot  and  turn  it  off.  Now  have  feet  prepared  for  new 
dial;  take  a  little  dissolved  shellac  and  put  it  on  the  bottom  of  each  of 
the  dial  feet  and  put  the  feet  to  their  places  in  the  movement  plate. 

Slightly  moisten  the  places  on  the  dial,  where  the  new  feet  come,  with 
dissolved  shellac,  and  lay  dial  on  these  feet  and  see  that  second  pivot 
comes  properly  through  the  dial,  and  that  the  edge  of  the  dial  corres- 
ponds with  the  edge  of  the  movement  plate.  Now  in  this  position  let 
dial  and  movement  lay  over  night,  and  in  the  morning  the  feet  will  be 
hard.  Now  lift  your  dial  off  carefully,  turn  it  upside  down,  and  bend  up 
two  brass  clamps  like  a  hair  pin,  but  not  so  long,  and  clamp  these  feet 
on  the  flat  part  and  lay  this  dial  on  a  cork  or  piece  of  wood,  feet  up. 
Now  put  on  your  soft  solder  fluid,  and  blow  a  broad  flame  over  it,  and 
after  the  fluid  has  boiled  you  can  put  on  your  solder  and  blow  again. 
Now  dip  it  in  a  solution  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  and  wash  off  with  soap 
and  water,  and  brush  dipped  in  clean  water  after  the  dirt  is  removed, 
Then  dip  it  in  alcohol,  and  dry  in  box- wood  saw  dust. 

The  balance,  of  course,  is  removed  during  this  process  of  fitting  the  dial. 
Now  examine  further  and  we  find  our  center  pivot  worn  and  the  hole  in 
the  bridge  or  upper  plate  too  large.  We  now  turn  the  pivot  smooth  with 
a  graver,  and  grind  with  a  pivot  polisher,  or  a  hand  oil  stone  file,  or  pen- 
cil made  of  iron  wire.  Now  clean  off  with  pith,  and  polish  with  rouge 
or  crocus.  Now  take  the  bridge  or  upper  plate,  and  with  a  round  face- 
punch  in  staking  tool,  close  the  hole.  Now  use  a  round  broach  and  open 
the  hole  to  its  proper  size,  so  it  will  fit  the  pivot  correctly.  Run  this 
broach  through,  with  the  bridge  screvved  to  its  place,  letting  the  broach 
go  through  the  opposite  hole  at  the  same  time.  Now  in  an  English 
watch,  we  may  need  a  new  bush,  as  the  hole  may  have  been  bushed  to 
one  side  and  the  center  wheel  be  out  of  upright;  but  the  question  is,  how 
to  make  the  best  job,  so  it  will  be  strong,  neat  and  workman  like. 

If  you  are  compelled  to  put  in  a  bush,  or  upright  a  hole  in  the  center 
of  a  Swiss,  English  or  American  watch,  first  broach  out  the  hole  about 
twice  its  size  and  tap  it  with  a  fine  thread.  Now  put  in  a  threaded  bush 
to  fit  snug;  now  rivet  it  in  the  staking  tool,  center  the  opposite  hole  in 
the  universal  head,  center  with  a  graver  point  and  drill  the  bush  in  the 
lathe  with  a  drill  a  shade  smaller  than  the  pivot.  Now  broach  out  in  the 
lathe  to  suit  the  pivot  and  turn  the  bush  off  nicely  with  your  slide  rest. 


Watch.  354 

After  sharpening  your  cutter  on  an  oilstone,  run  it  over  a  fine  emery 
stick  to  remove  the  burr  on  the  cutting  edge.  Now,  with  moderate  high 
speed,  you  can  turn  off  this  bush  in  good  style.  Should  the  endshake  be 
too  tight,  lay  your  plate  (English  or  full  American),  on  a  movement 
cup  or  ring,  and  with  a  wooden  punch  and  hammer  punch  it  outward. 
Treat  a  mainspring  barrel  in  a  similar  manner  when  the  end  shake  of 
the  arbor  is  too  tight,  by  laying  it  on  a  small  silk  spool,  one  end  of  the 
spool  turned  conically  inward,  so  the  outer  edge  only  will  touch  the  bar- 
rel.    Strike  the  arbor  with  a  horn,  ivory  or  wooden  mallet. 

We  oftentimes  find  American  and  English  center  pinions  badly  worn, 
so  that  when  they  are  trued  and  polished  up,  there  will  be  no  shoulder 
left  for  the  cannon  pinion.  When  they  are  so  badly  worn  as  that,  take 
a  piece  of  steel,  sometimes  an  old  English  cannon  pinion  (this  will  not 
have  to  be  drilled),  put  it  in  lathe  and  turn  a  collar  out  of  it,  first  prepar- 
ing center  pinion  to  receive  this  collar.  Have  this  collar  a  little  higher 
and  a  little  thicker  than  the  pivot  is  to  be,  and  to  go  on  loosely.  Now 
soft  solder  it  on  to  its  place,  wash  clean  and  dry,  and  put  the  center 
wheel  with  its  pinion  back  in  the  lathe  and  finish  off  with  graver  and 
oil  stone,  file  and  rouge,  as  before  mentioned.  The  collar  can  be  hard- 
ened and  tempered  in  first-class  style,  by  cutting  a  piece  of  binding 
wire  through  it  and  holding  over  the  lamp  and  dipping  in  water  or 
oil.  Now  you  can  clean  it  off  by  running  a  pointed  peg-wood  tlirough 
it,  then  run  over  it  with  a  fine  emery  stick,  then  lay  on  the  bluing 
pan  and  turn  to  a  dark  chestnut  color. 

Take  the  mainspring  out  of  the  barrel,  hold  the  arbor  in  the  same  way 
and  revolve  the  barrel  and  you  can  see  if  it  runs  true.  Now  to  true  this 
barrel,  either  Swiss,  English,  or  American,  close  the  top  or  bottom  hole 
with  a  round-faced  punch,  in  a  staking  tool.  In  a  Swiss,  close  the  bot- 
tom, and  in  an  English,  the  top  hole.  An  American  seldom  needs  this 
treatment.  Now  put  barrel  together  and  center  it  in  universal  head,  and 
with  a  narrow  and  short  cutter  in  slide  rest  open  the  hole  that  you  closed 
to  fit  the  arbor.  When  fitted,  take  it  out  and  revolve  it  as  before  and  our 
barrel  will  be  dead  true.  Now  in  our  key-winder  Swiss,  we  find  the 
ratchet  worn,  and  it  needs  a  new  one.  As  the  arbor  and  ratchet  are  one 
piece,  we  turn  the  ratchet  about  half  off,  edgewise.  Now  we  turn  it 
flatwise,  and  file  or  grind  the  square  a  little  lower,  so  it  will  receive  the 
new  ratchet.  This  new  ratchet  must  have  a  recess  turned  in  it  to  fit  over 
the  part  of  the  old  ratchet.  The  square  hole  must  fit  the  square  snugly. 
Now,  if  this  new  ratchet  is  not  too  hard  and  the  teeth  not  too  fine,  it  will 
last  better  than  the  original.  Now,  in  English  watches,  the  square  is 
oftentimes  badly  worn,  or  too  small.  In  this  case,  draw  the  temper  of  the 
old  square,  turn  it  down  by  holding  it  in  a  step  chuck  by  the  fusee,  tak- 
ing off  the  great,  or  fusee  wheel,  and  maintaining  ratchet.  After  turn- 
ing it  down  and  squaring  the  pivot,  cut  a  left-hand  thread  in  a  suitable 
piece  of  steel,  and  also  on  the  old  square  (which,  of  course,  is  turned  down 


WfS  Watch. 

in  the  step  chuck),  and  fit  this  piece  of  steel  on  the  old  arbor,  down  to 
the  pivot  shoulder,  against  the  stop  cam.  Now  turn  it  down  with  a  graver 
and  square  up  the  end  in  a  lathe,  and  drill  a  very  small  hole  through 
near  the  end  of  the  square  upper  end.  Now  take  and  unscrew  the  new 
square  and  harden  and  temper  it.  Hold  it  over  the  lamp  by  a  piece  of 
binding  wire,  and  dip  in  oil  when  cherrv  red.  Now  hold  it  in  a  chuck  and 
clean  it  off  with  an  emery  stick.  Now  turn  to  a  dark  brown,  screw  back 
on,  and  grind  and  polish  up.  No  graver  is  needed  on  this  job  after  it  is 
hardened  and  tempered.  The  thread  need  not  go  all  the  way  down ;  half 
way  will  do,  but  the  new  square  must  go  against  the  shoulder  tight  up 
to  the  lower  round  part  of  the  square.  When  all  done,  put  the  little 
pin  through,  which  keeps  it  from  coming  off  when   turned  to  the  right. 

On  opening  a  barrel  observe  the  condition  of  the  mainspring,  and  the 
inside  of  the  barrel  head.  Often,  in  good  watches,  the  inside  of  the  bar- 
rel head  is  not  flat,  and  the  mainspring  scrapes  it.  Turn  this  flat  with 
a  step  chuck  and  slide  rest,  at  high  speed,  and  sharpen  the  cutter  as  be- 
fore mentioned.  Now  examine  the  mainspring,  and  see  if  it  is  the  proper 
strength  and  width,  and  examine  the  hook,  or  brace,  and  stop  work,  the 
teeth  of  the  ban-el,  etc.  Now,  sometimes  in  American  watches,  the  barrel 
touches  the  balance ;  alter  this  by  countersinking  the  lower  hole- of  the 
arbor  in  the  movement  plate  and  bending  the  bridge  down  a  little  in  the 
center,  with  a  wooden  spool  and  wooden  punch,  as  in  endshaking  the 
center  hole  in  American  watches  and  the  barrel  arbor. 

Oftentimes  we  find  the  winding  pinion  too  shallow  for  the  bevel  wheel. 
Remedy  this  by  either  lowering  the  pinion  deeper  into  the  wheel,  or  the 
wheel  into  the  pinion.  Oftentimes,  in  Waltham  watches  of  the  old 
series,  the  intermediate  winding  wheel  is  too  deep  in  the  ratchet  wheel. 
This  can  be  corrected  by  the  banking  screw,  by  putting  in  one  with  a 
larger  head.  Now,  very  often  the  intermediate  setting  wheel  is  too  shal- 
low in  the  minute  wheel.  Correct  this  by  stretching  the  lever  where  it 
touches  the  yoke,  and  taking  off  a  little  of  the  yoke  where  it  banks  for 
the  hand  setting.  Remember  that  the  yoke  should  be  perfectly  steady 
and  firm,  in  turning  the  hands  either  way.  The  teeth  of  the  minute 
wheel  are  often  ruined  when  the  cannon  pinion  is  a  little  tight  and  the 
intermediate  hand  setting  and  minute  wheels  are  too  shallow.  Never 
touch  the  arbor  of  the  cannon  pinion,  but  see  that  it  is  perfectly  smooth 
and  round.  If  the  cannon  pinion  is  too  high  from  the  plate,  turn  a  little 
off  from  the  under  side.  Take  pinion  off  with  a  pair  of  brass-lined  pliers. 
If  the  cannon  pinion  is  too  loose  on  the  arbor  (if  a  stem-wind),  punch  it 
in  the  same  place,  with  a  punch  in  the  staking  tool,  having  a  V  shaped 
stump  to  lay  the  cannon  pinion  on,  and  holding  it  with  a  peg-wood,  or 
broach,  while  punching  it.  Use  a  punch  a  little  rounding.  A  cannon 
pinion  should  work  smoothly  all  around.  Now,  in  a  Swiss  watch  with  a 
hollow  center  pinion,  when  its  arbor  is  too  loose,  lay  the  arbor  on  a  small 
flat  anvil,  or  steel,  or  brass  block,  in  front  of  you,  not  on  vise,  and  hold  a 


Watch.  *^W 

small  square  file  across  it,  and  tap  it  with  a  small  hammer,  rolling  it 
while  you  tap  it.  This  raises  a  nice  burr  all  around  it.  If  a  little  too 
tight,  take  it  o£E  with  an  oil  stone  slip.  This  can  be  done  when  the  watch 
is  clean  and  running. 

Now  examine  the  click,  and  see  that  it  has  a  loose  endshake  and  that 
the  point  goes  freely  in  and  out  of  the  teeth  of  the  wheel.  Sometimes 
the  point  is  too  blunt,  and  in  many  cases,  the  click  spring  is  too  strong. 
Click  springs  should  have  a  very  low  temper,  and  a  nice  slender  shape, 
as  the  bending  they  perform  is  very  little.  They  should  not  scrape  on 
the  plate,  nor  hold  the  click  down  too  tight,  if  made  like  some  Elgin 
clicks. 

Now  the  end  Bhake  of  the  ratchet  or  ratchet  wheel,  should  have  some 
attention.  You  can  easily  manipulate  this,  if  the  ratchet  is  between  the 
plates.  End  shake  it  with  the  winding  arbor.  Now  we  have  the  stem 
winding  wheels,  etc.,  in  proper  shape.  The  minute  wheel  pinion  may 
rub  on  the  dial.  Remedy  this  by  grinding  the  dial  away  with  an  emery 
wheel,  and  oftentimes  free  the  hour  wheel  the  same  way.  If  there  is 
too  much  end  shake,  put  on  a  spring  washer,  cut  it  square  and  turn  the 
corners  up.  We  can  examine  the  train  from  the  third  wheel  to  the 
scape  wheel;  see  if  the  holes  are  large,  and  end  shake  correct.  In  some 
cases  in  Swiss  watches,  where  the  third  and  center  wheels  are  under  the 
same  bridge,  you  can  sometimes  turn  the  shoulder  of  the  lower  pivot 
back. 

Sometimes  we  find  pivots  too  loose  in  their  holes,  and  in  some  cases 
a  new  jewel  can  be  put  in  to  fit  the  pivot  to  a  better  advantage.  In 
this  case  we  must  be  guided  by  our  practical  experience,  as  in  many 
other  instances.  True  pinion  or  staff  in  a  split  chuck,  flatten  the  old 
place,  that  you  are  to  center  with,  on  an  oilstone  slip,  and  center  with  a 
graver.  Nine  out  of  ten  Swiss  or  English,  and  a  few  American  pinions, 
can  be  drilled  without  annealing.  Use  oil  and  a  properly  made  drill. 
For  a  bow  drill  use  a  rounding  point,  and  in  an  American  lathe  an 
obtuse  angle  point,  to  cut  only  one  way.  Drill  pinion  or  staff,  and  if 
you  are  compelled  to  draw  the  temper,  do  it  in  the  following  way :  Use 
a  cap  made  of  copper  wire,  holding  the  opposite  end  of  staff  or  pinion 
in  a  pair  of  brass-lined  flat  plyers ;  set  copper  cap  on  and  blow  a  sharp 
blaze  on  the  cap  to  blue  article  to  be  drilled.  Remove  the  color  with  a 
peg- wood  and  rouge;  first  with  rouge  and  oil,  and  then  with  dry  rouge. 
Never  leave  a  pinion  or  staff  discolored.  Now,  if  article  cannot  be 
trued  in  split  chuck,  cement  it  in,  but  you  can  true  five  out  of  every  ten 
in  a  No.  i  Moseley  lathe,  without  cement.  For  drilling  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  article  should  run  dead  true;  but  it  should  be  dead  true> 
in  turning  the  pivot  on  and  finishing.  Now,  in  pivoting  after  the  hole 
is  drilled  and  the  plug  is  hammered  in,  turn  your  pivot  to  its  proper 
shape  with  a  graver  and  almost  with  the  point.  Turn  pivot  down  to 
about  three  degrees  thicker  tlian  pivot  is  to  be.     Now  we    have  our 


357  Watch. 

pivot  finished  with  a  graver.  Now  use  an  iron  wire,  about  two  milli- 
meters thick  and  about  five  inches  long,  flattened  about  one  inch  on  one 
end  with  a  file,  filing  crosswise,  and  now  and  then  retouching  with  a  fine 
file.  This  is  done  so  the  file  lines  or  marks  will  retain  the  grinding 
powder  to  be  used  with  oil.  For  a  staff  pivot,  always  file  the  corner  off 
a  little,  so  it  will  conform  to  the  conical  shoulder,  and  file  or  grind,  hold- 
ing the  oil-stone  charged  file  so  the  latter  and  the  pivot  will  traverse  at 
an  acute  angle.  This  is  done  to  prevent  the  pivot  from  lining.  Now,  if 
down  to  the  desired  size  and  shape,  use  another  such  tool,  made  of  brass 
or  zinc  and  charged  with  rouge  and  oil,  and  polish  pivot  in  the  same 
manner  that  jou  grind  it.  At  last  touch  it  up  with  dry  rouge  and  a  peg- 
wood.  Diamantine  and  oil  or  alcohol  can  also  be  used  to  good  advan- 
tage before  using  the  rouge. 

After  all  repairs,  clean  your  work  in  the  following  manner:  Use  good 
benzine  or  gasoline  and  cyanide  of  potassium ;  a  lump  as  large  as  a  wal- 
nut to  a  pint  of  water.  Keep  in  a  glass  or  china  cup  with  a  cover  on  it. 
Clean  the  lever  in  benzine  only  and  dry  in  the  sawdust.  Have  an  alco- 
hol cup,  with  cover,  plenty  of  clean  soft  water  (in  cold  weather  use  warm 
water),  and  a  medium  soft  brush,  like  a  paint  brush,  about  a  half  inch 
thick  for  the  benzine.  A  long,  three  or  four  row  brush,  to  use  with  good 
castile  soap  and  water,  and  three,  four  or  more  pieces  of  brass  wire  made 
into  loops  or  strings,  by  bending  an  eye  on  each  wire  like  a  fishing  hook. 
The  wire  can  be  almost  any  length,  from  three  to  six  inches,  and  from 
three-tenths  to  five-tenths  mm.  thick.  This,  with  about  three  pints  of 
boxwood  sawdust,  put  through  a  sieve. to  get  out  the  coarse  particles,  and 
a  soft  camel's  hair  brush  to  use  dry  on  the  work  after  it  has  been  cleaned, 
completes  the  outfit  for  cleaning.  Put  a  wire  through  the  top  plate, 
hang  in  the  benzine,  and  brush  it  carefully  with  the  benzine  brush,  prin- 
cipally the  pivot  holes.  After  this  has  been  done,  pick  up  the  stem 
wheels,  wheels  and  small  parts,  unscrew  the  safety  pinions,  and  wash 
and  clean  with  the  wheels.  Oil  the  thread  sparingly  when  you  put  it 
back.  String  all  of  these  small  parts  on  a  wire.  Put  the  lower  plate  on 
with  the  barrel.  Use  a  very  thick  wire  for  the  balance  (dip  it  separately), 
and  move  it  about  in  the  benzine;  dry  it  in  sawdust,  dip  in  cyanide  solu- 
tion, in  clear  water,  then  in  alcohol.  Then  move  it  about  in  the  saw- 
dust; this  will  clean  the  balance  and  hair  spring  and  roller.  After  the 
plates  and  wheels  have  gone  through  the  benzine  or  gasoline,  dip  them 
in  the  cyanide  and  wash  with  brush  and  water  and  castile  soap.  Dip  in 
clean  water,  then  in  alcohol  and  then  in  sawdust.  By  this  process,  every 
speck  of  oil  will  be  removed,  and  the  gilding  or  nickle  finish  will  not  be 
injured,  as  with  old  fogy  chalk,  and  a  variety  of  powder.  Sometimes 
the  dirt  in  the  pinion  is  thick  and  hard,  and  it  must  be  removed  with 
peg-wood;  sometimes  it  has  been  oiled  with  linseed  oil  and  left  to  dry; 
this  can  be  boiled  off  in  oil  and  cleaned  as  mentioned.  To  get  dirt  or 
hard  gum  out  of  the  wheel  teeth,  make  a  kind  of  pad  with  stiff  writing 


Watch.  358 

paper,  draw  the  edge  of  these  papers  through  the  teeth ;  this  will  clean 
them  niceljr.  When  taking  the  cleaned  parts  from  the  sawdust,  hold 
them  with  Dennison's  watch  papers,  and  brush  off  with  a  three  or  four 
row  soft  camel  or  fine  goat  hair  brush.  In  setting  the  watch  up,  set  the 
stem  work  up  first  and  oil  it  properly.  Right  here,  in  oiling,  is  where  it 
requires  judgment.  For  the  stem  work  use  a  heavier  oil  than  for  the 
train.  Use  refined  clock  oil  for  the  stem  wheels,  as  thej  necessarily 
require  a  heavier  oil,  and  it  also  has  less  tendency  to  spread.  Use  watch 
oil  in  oiling  the  center  pivots,  and  they,  being  large,  should  have  more 
oil  than  the  third,  fourth  and  scape  wheels,  etc.  Put  the  proper  amount 
of  oil  on  the  end-stone,  or  cap  jewel,  before  putting  the  latter  to  its  place ; 
also  the  barrel  arbor.  Oil  the  pallet  faces  sparingly  before  putting  the 
lever  to  its  place.  Now  if  your  balance  and  hair  spring  ar(*true  and  in 
poise,  and  the  pivots  have  their  proper  freedom  and  end  shake,  and  the 
roller  its  proper  freedom,  and  everything  is  all  right  throughout,  your 
watch  will  move  off  all  right.  To  ascertain  if  exactly  in  beat,  liold  a 
peg-wood  against  the  tf.eth  of  the  fourth  wheel,  and  move  it  slightly  for- 
ward, and  observe  the  motion  of  the  balance.  If  one  pallet  throws  the 
balance  further  than  the  other,  turn  the  hair  spring  by  the  collet  slot,  so 
that  the  lift  will  be  equal  on  both  pallets.  When  in  beat,  examine  the 
escapement  again ;  see  if  the  balance  clears  the  stud,  cock,  center  wheel,' 
etc.  See  if  all  the  screws  are  tight,  and  by  all  means  have  the  hair 
spring  so  the  second  coil  will  not  get  into  the  curb  pins.  After  this  the 
train  can  be  oiled.  The  barrel  pivot  next  to  the  ratchet,  or  ratchet 
wheel,  should  be  oiled  before  the  ratchet  wheel  is  put  on.  It  is  well  to 
oil  the  balance  jewel  holes  after  it  has  been  put  in  beat,  on  account  of 
dragging  in  dust  with  the  pivots  if  they  should  be  oiled  before.  After 
this  put  on  the  dial  wheels ;  do  not  oil  the  minute  wheel  posts;  see  that 
the  hour  wheel  has  its  proper  end  shake.  In  cheap  watches  put  on  a  thin 
washer  to  steady  the  hour  hand  and  wheel ;  put  the  dial  on,  and  see  that 
the  second  and  hour  wheel  sockets  are  in  the  center  of  the  holes  after  the 
dial  is  properly  fastened.  If  you  have  any  steel  hands  to  bend,  it  will 
pay  you  to  bend  them  with  a  pair  of  hot  tweezers,  as  this  will  prevent 
breaking  them.  Now  set  your  second  hand  with  your  second  pendulum 
regulator,  and  regulate  pendant  up.  Meantime  you  can  clean  the  case 
with  water,  ammonia  and  a  soft  cotton  rag.  An  old  tooth  brush  can  be 
used  in  the  corners.  Stiff  joints  in  front  case  can  be  loosened  up  with 
benzine.  This  will  take  the  dirt  out,  and  the  joints  will  work  free. 
Cases  should  be  cleaned,  like  all  other  repaired  work.  Often  we  find 
balance  hole  jewels  entirely  too  thick,  so  they  will  take  an  unreasonably 
long  pivot  to  reach  through  them.  To  remedy  this,  use  an  iron  point 
charged  with  diamond  powder,  that  fits  the  concave  of  the  jewel,  and 
then  polish  in  the  same  manner  with  a  finer  grade  of  diamond  powder, 
diamantine  and  rotten  stone.  Keep  the  jewel  wet  with  water  in  grind- 
ing and  polishing,  and  use  the  highest  speed  you  can  produce.      Care 


359  Watch  Bow  Pliers. 

must  be  taken  in  this  operation,  as  it  requires  a  little  experience. 
Like  everything  else,  you  will  find  a  great  deal  of  difference  in  grind- 
ing a  garnet  or  a  ruby  or  sapphire,  also  in  polishing  them.  Zinc  and 
lead  points  are  used  in  polishing  with  diamantine  and  rotten  stone 
and  water.  If  the  above  process  is  understood  it  can  be  quickly 
done.  The  hole  can  also  be  polished,  but  in  some  cases  it  will  pay 
better  to  put  in  a  new  and  perfect  jewel. 

Sizes  of  Watch  Movements.  Swiss  and  French  watches  are 
measured  by  the  French  ligne  (line)  which  is  one-twelfth  of  an  inch 
of  a  Paris  foot.  One  line  equals  .088814  of  an  English  inch,  or 
2.25583  mm.  The  movements  are  spoken  of  as  14-line,  18-line,  19- 
line,  etc.  Mr.  Aaron  L.  Dennison  is  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  the 
system  employed  for  the  sizing  of  American  watches  and  he  first 
applied  it  to  the  watches  made  by  the  American  Horologe  Company, 
about  1851.  One  inch  was  taken  as  a  basing  figure  and  to  this  ^  of 
an  inch  was  added  for  a  "  fall  "  or  drop,  this  being  allowed  so  that  the 
movement  could  be  tipped  into  its  place  of  seating  in  a  ring  or  case; 
then  every  ^  of  an  inch  formed  a  size.  A  i6-size  would  then  be 
I  inch  -I-  /(T  -)-  H  =  I  U- 

WATCH  BOW  PLIERS.  Pliers  of  a  peculiar  shape,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  311,  and  used  for  manipulating  watch  bows. 


Fig.  311.  • 

WATCH  CASE  TOOL.  The  Hopkins'  patent  watch  case  tool  is 
designed  for  the  two-fold  purpose  of  easing  a  case  when  it  opens  too 
hard,  and  for  making  one  stay  shut  when  it  opens  too  easy.  It  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  312.  The  part  D  is  intended  only  for  use  when  the  spring 
catch  of  a  hunting  case  has  worn  the  case  so  that  it  will  not  stay  shut. 

For  making  a  back  case  stay  shut  when  it  opens  too  easily,  use  the 
cutting  tooth  B,  in  the  following  manner:  Rest  the  beveled  edge  of 
the  tool  from  A  to  C,  down  level  on  the  ledge  against  which  the  dome 
or  back  case  closes,  as  represented  in  the  illustration,  taking  care  to 
keep  the  end  A  as  well  as  the  tooth  B  down  level  on  the  ledge,  and  in- 
ward against  the  part  to  be  re-undercut,  in  which  position,  with  the  end 
B  resting  in  the  hollow  of  your  right  hand,  back  of  the  little  finger, 
and  with  your  thumb  resting  on  the  inner  cap  to  steady  your  hand. 


Watch  Hand  Pliers.  360 

hold  the  tool  thus  quite  still,  and  with  your  left  hand  give  a  circular 
movement  to  the  watch,  crowding  the  part  to  be  under  cut  against  the 
tooth  B,  that  is,  instead  of  shoving  the  tool  forward  to  produce  the 
cutting,  hold  the  tool  still,  and  crowd  the  part  of  the  case  to  be  cut 
against  it  as  described.  By  thus  renewing  the  under  cut  of  the  catch 
edge,  even  a  badly  worn  case  may  be  made  to  shut  and  stay  shut  nicely. 


Fig.  312. 

For  easing  the  cap  or  the  back  case  of  a  watch  when  it  opens  too 
hard,  rest  the  end  A,  of  the  tool,  down  on  the  inside  of  the  dome,  with 
the  handle  inclining  backward  at  an  angle  of  about  45°,  and  with  one  of 
the  sharp  edges  extending  from  A  to  C,  brought  to  bear  against  the  snap 
edge  that  requires  to  be  eased,  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  give  a  shaving 
(not  a  scraping)  cut;  carefully  shave  off  the  edge,  thus,  to  the  extent 
required.  In  this  way  even  the  most  delicate  case  may  be  eased 
without  the  slightest  marring  or  injury  to  it.  In  case  of  roughness  of 
the  snap  edge,  burnish  it  carefully  with  the  back  of  the  tool;  or  rubbing 
a  bit  of  beeswax  around  the  edge  will  often  be  found  of  service  in  cases 
of  this  kind. 

WATCH  HAND  PLIERS.  Fig.  313  shows  Horton's  combination 
watch  hand  pliers  for  removing  watch  hands,  second,  hour  and  minute. 
It  also  takes  the  place  of  the  9-hole  hand  sliding  tongs. 


Fig.  313. 
WATCH  PAPERS.  These  were  circular  pieces  of  paper,  silk,  vel- 
vet, or  muslin,  placed  in  the  outer  cases  of  the  old  watches,  and  were 
decorated  with  verses  or  devices ;  some  of  them  were  very  elaborate 
specimens  of  scroll  work,  and  had  a  miniature  painted  in  the  center,  others 
merely  bore  verses.  Later  this  same  device  was  used  by  repairers  as  a 
means  of  placing  a  business  card  in  the  watch.  Many  old  watches  in 
various  collections  contain  over  a  dozen  of  these  cards,  of  repairers  in 
whose  hands  the  watch  has  been. 


i/$- 


Fig.  3'4 


361  Wheels  and  Pinions. 

WHEELS  AND  PINIONS.  There  are  few  watchmakers  who 
have  not  some  arbitrary  rule  for  determining  the  size  of  wheels 
and  pinions  by  which  they  can  obtain  the  desired  information. 
There  is,  however,  more  to  this  subject  which  is  shrouded  with 
more  or  less  mystery  to  the  average  mechanic  and  horologist,  viz., 
that  after  he  has  selected  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  or  pinion, 
what  kind  of  a  tooth  he  is  going  to  use  in  such  wheel  or  pinion. 
There  are  two  general  requisites  which  should  be  borne  in  mind 
and  which  I  am  sure  every  watchmaker  does  bear  in  mind:  (i) 
The  uniform  transmission  of  power,  and  (2)  the  uniform  transmis- 
sion of  speed;  or,  in  other  words,  how  to  obtain  uniform  efficiency 
of  the  mainspring  and  how  to  rotate  the  pinion  at  a  uniform  velocity 
in  proportion  to  the  respective  diameters  of  the  wheels  and  pinions. 

Starting  with  the  idea  that  the  average  watchmaker  knows  how  to 
compute  the  outer  diameter  of  his  wheel  or  pinion,  we  will  take  into 
consideration  the  watch  in  which  the  wheel  or  pinion  is  to  be  inserted. 
The  first  thing  necessary  to  determine  is,  as  to  whether  the  watch  has 
a  fine  or  a  coarse  train,  a  slow  or  a  quick  train.  When  this  conclu- 
sion is  arrived  at,  there  still  remains  to  consider  the  thickness  of  the 
tooth.  Assuming  that  it  is  a  fine  quick  train  watch,  in  which  the  cen- 
ter wheel  has  80  teeth  and  the  third  pinion  10  teeth.  In  mechanical 
engineering  it  is  assumed  that  6  to  i  is  the  greatest  ratio  that  can  be 
maintained  between  an  involute  wheel  and  pinion,  and  8  to  i  between 
an  epicyclic  wheel  and  pinion;  but  in  watchmaking  we  brush  these 
considerations  aside  and  provide  for  larger  differences  in  angular 
velocity  in  unique  methods,  which  the  size  of  this  paper  will  not 
allow  me  to  consider  here. 

As  is  well  known  in  mechanical  engineering — of  which  watchmak- 
ing is  but  a  finer  degree — when  considering  the  driving  train  of 
gears,  there  are  what  is  termed  two  kinds  of  friction,  viz.,  an  engag- 
ing friction,  or  friction  which  occurs  when  the  wheel  teeth  engage 
before  the  line  of  centers;  and  a  disengaging  friction  which  occurs 
when  the  wheel  teeth  leave  or  recede  from  the  line  of  centers.  The 
first  friction  is  the  most  dangerous  in  a  watch,  in  that  it  is  a  kind  of 
dragging  movement,  which,  like  the  unwinding  of  a  mainspring,  is 
decidedly  irregular,  and  consequently  should  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible.  The  disengaging  friction  is  what  might  be  termed  a  push- 
ing friction,  and  has,  so  far  as  can  be  observed  by  dynamometer  tests, 
a  certain  ratio  of  uniformity,  and  is  not  so  dangerous  in  the  watch. 
Therefore,  the  first  thing  necessary  to  consider  in  designing  the  train 
is  the  thickness  of  the  wheel  tooth  and  pinion;  and,  of  course,  the 
outer  diameter  of  the  follower  or  driven  pinion. 

The  lo-leaf  pinion  is  practically  the  first  pinion  with  which  we  can 
with  some  degree  of  assurance  have  engagement  between  it,  and  its 
wheel  teeth,  or  what  is  termed  the  "  lead  "  occur  on  the  line  of  cen- 


Wheels  and  Pinions.  363 

ters.  Unfortunately,  however,  in  watches  this  is  not  always  practica- 
ble to  obtain,  in  that  it  would  require  that  the  leaf  be  made  very  thin. 
For  instance,  dividing  the  360  degrees — which  is  the  pitch  circumfer- 
ence— into  ten  equal  parts,  it  allows  36  degrees  for  the  circular  pitch. 
To  obtain  a  tooth  of  theoretical  thickness  to  insure  the  "  lead  "  begin- 
ning on  the  line  of  centers,  11  degrees  should  be  taken  for  the  thick- 
ness of  the  leaf  and  25  for  the  space,  making  the  face  of  the  tooth — 
or  that  portion  above  the  pitch  line — practically  a  semi-circle;  and  as 
this  is  merely  added  for  safety,  it  would  insure  a  pinion  in  which  the 
lead  would  take  place  at  the  line  of  centers.  But  these  theoretical 
conditions  could  not  be  fulfilled,  in  that  the  tooth  would  be  so  thin 
and  weak  as  to  be  practically  unfit  for  the  transmission  of  power, 
and  also  from  the  fact  that  the  driving  wheel  would  not  drive  the 
pinion  one-tenth  of  a  circumference,  so  that  a  certain  amount  of  drop 
would  take  place  and  a  consequent  variation  in  the  time-keeping 
qualities  of  the  watch.  To  overcome  these  objections,  however,  it  is 
safe,  to  add  on  a  certain  amount — iVz  of  the  circular  pitch — taking 
13  degrees  for  the  tooth  and  23  degrees  for  the  space.  Of  course 
some  discretion  and  judgment  must  be  used  in  these  matters,  and 
especially  in  very  small  watches  even  this  proportion  would  be  too 
fine;  but  the  tooth  should  be  made  as  small  as  possible  consistent 
with  strength,  and  to  prevent  drop.  This  rule,  however-^or  figures 
which  I  will  give — will  be  found  very  satisfactory  in  watches  from  18 
to  10  size,  inclusive.  Below  this,  circumstances  have  to  be  taken  into 
consideration  and  provided  for  accordingly. 

Summing  up  briefly,  a  rule  which  I  found  most  practicable  regard- 
ing thickness  of  tooth  and  pinions:  Where  the  theoretical  conditions 
cannot  (always)  be  complied  with  for  the  pinion  leaves — 11°  for  the 
tooth  and  25°  for  the  space — practical  experiment  shows  that  divid- 
ing the  circular  pitch  into  30  parts,  and  taking  ii  for  the  tooth  and  19 
for  the  space,  makes  a  good  working  pinion.  To  insure  absolute 
freedom,  the  circular  pitch  of  the  wheel  should  be  divided  into  9 
parts,  taking  4  for  the  tooth  and  5  for  the  space.  Having  determined 
the  thickness  of  the  tooth,  the  next  thing  to  determine  is  what  will  be 
the  curve  of  the  tooth  used  in  the  wheel  and  pinion.  Here,  as  in 
other  problems,  there  are  a  multitude  of  conditions  to  be  considered, 
the  principal  ones  being:  (i)  Transmission  of  a  substantially  uniform 
power;  (2)  transmission  of  a  practically  uniform  speed;  and  (3)  the 
thickness  of  the  tooth  of  the  gear  to  which  the  curve  is  to  be  applied. 
Considering  the  two  principal  curves  which  have  been  advanced 
after  years  of  experiment,  viz.,  the  involute  and  the  cycloid,  it  has 
been  demonstrated  by  large  indicating  levers  attached  to  a  dynamom- 
eter that  the  involute  drives  with  the  most  uniform  transmission  of 
power,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is  a  curve  developed  by  the 
transforming  of  a  circle  into  a  straight  line.     In   other  words,   it  is 


363 


Wheels  and  Pinions. 


developed  like  taking  a  cord  that  is  wound  around  a  spool  and 
attaching  a  pencil  to  the  free  end,  and  then  unwinding  the  cord. 
You  will  see  that  the  cord  becomes  a  straight  line,  and  the  trans- 
forming of  this  cord  into  a  straight  line  forms  a  peculiar  curve  called 
an  "  involute."    The  peculiar  feature  of  this  curve  is  that  it  is  pecu- 


iarly  adapted  to  drive  the  straight  flank  of  a  tooth  or  lever  (as  such 
lever  is  always  driven)  at  right  angles  to  the  curve;  or,  in  other  words, 
a  tangent.  In  machine  gearing  this  curve  is  almost  universally  used, 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  very  simple  to  make,  and  the  further  fact  that 


Wheels  and  Pinions.  364 

the  main  object  required  is  the  uniform  transmission  of  power.  In 
watchmaking,  however,  we  have  a  further  thing  to  consider,  and  that 
is  the  pinion  or  wheel  must  be  driven  in  such  a  manner  that  it  should 
travel  through  equal  degrees  of  its  arc  or  circumference  in  equal 
periods  of  time.  For  this  purpose  eminent  engineers  have  found 
that  the  epicycloid  or  cycloid,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  the  curve  best 
fitted,  in  that  it  is  a  curve  that  is  developed  by  either  rolling  a  circle 
on  a  straight  line — cycloid — and  tracing  a  curve  from  one  point  only; 
or  it  is  a  curve — epicycloid — developed  by  rolling  a  circle  upon 
another  circle  and  describing  a  curve  with  one  point  of  such  generat- 
ing circle. 

The  accompanying  diagram.  Fig.  314;  shows  the  method  of  generat- 
ing an  epicycloid  curve.  The  segments  of  the  circle  A,  represent  a  por- 
tion of  the  pitch  circle  of  a  third  wheel.  The  circle  B  represents  the 
pitch  circle  of  a  fourth  pinion.  The  circles  C  represent  a  circle  the 
diameter  of  a  pitch  radius,  viz.,  the  circle  by  which  the  curve  i  in 
section  lines  is  developed;  and  the  circles  B  represent  circles  of  the 
diameter  of  the  pitched  radius  of  the  third  wheel,  rolled  by  the  pitch 
diameter  to  develop  an  epicycloid  curve.  The  peculiar  features  of 
this  epicycloidal  curve  is  that  it  will  drive  the  radial  line  or  the  flank 
of  a  tooth — that  is,  the  portion  of  the  tooth  below  the  pitched  circle — 
with  a  practically  uniform  velocity,  and,  as  a  consequence,  it  has  been 
adopted  by  watchmakers  as  the  proper  curve  to  give  to  the  tooth  of  a 
watch.  Unfortunately,  however,  few  watchmakers  have  taken 
into  consideration  that  there  are  other  conditions  to  be  met  in  the 
train  of  wheels  and  pinions  in  a  watch.  A  fixed  or  arbitrary  diam- 
eter is  selected  for  the  wheel  or  pinion.  An  epicycloidal  cutter  is 
formed,  and  the  wheel  tooth  is  cut  so  as  to  meet  in  a  point  at  the 
outer  diameter.  If  it  meets  in  such  a  point,  the  operator  in  charge  is 
satisfied  that  his  tooth  is  correct,  in  that  he  has  cut  his  wheel  with 
what  he  terms  an  "  epicycloidal  cutter."  In  order  to  get  this  form, 
however,  he  has  varied  the  angle  of  his  tooth  and  slightly  altered  the 
curve  with  a  diamond  lap,  in  order  to  get  what  he  terms  a  proper 
"  epicycloidal  tooth,"  which  very  much  resembles  the  shape  of  the 
tooth  4  in  Fig.  315. 

In  Fig.  314,  I  have  developed  curve  i,  as  a  true  epicycloidal  curve, 
which  practically  explains  itself.  I  have  then  taken  circles  approxi- 
mating the  shape  of  this  curve  and  transferred  them  to  Fig.  315, 
which  shows  the  true  epicycloidal  curve  attached  to  outline  in  the 
tooth  numbered  i.  Inspecting  this  shaped  tooth,  it  will  be  found 
that  in  order  to  make  a  pointed  tooth  with  an  epicycloidal  curve,  the 
point  extends  beyond  the  arbitrary  diameter  selected  for  the  diam- 
eter of  the  wheel,  so  that  if  the  tooth  should  be  made  a  true  epicy- 
cloid, it  would  be  flattened  at  the  top.  This  would  not  do,  however, 
in  that  it  would  be  a  bad  form  of  tooth  and  quickly  round  on  the  top, 


365  Wheels  and  Pinions. 

destroying  in  a  measure  the  advantages  derived  from  an  epicycloidal 
curve.  My  attention  was  drawn  to  this  matter  at  first  from  the  fact 
that  in  a  large  number  of  watches  having  wheels  formed  by  the 
same  cutter  we  had  different  variations  or  rating  at  different  inter- 
vals of  the  twenty-four  hours,  although  the  watches  would  practically 
correspond  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  twenty-four  hours.  In- 
vestigating the  fact  and  finding  that  the  escapement  was  correct  and 
satisfactory — that  the  mainspring  developed  the  true  curve  in  run- 
ning down  and  winding  up — I  concluded  that  the  trouble  lay  in  the 
shape  of  the  wheel  teeth.  Examine  the  tooth  in  Fig.  314,  lettered 
D:  The  shape  of  the  tooth  i  is  the  correct  epicycloid,  and  the  shape 
of  the  outline  4  is  what  the  workman  termed  a  "nice  looking  tooth." 
Now,  if  when  the  point  a  of  the  wheel  tooth  contacted  the  pinion  the 
rating  was  correct,  and  when  leaving  at  b  the  rating  was  correct,  then 
at  all  intermediate  points  the  running  of  the  watch  must  have  been 
practically  incorrect.  I  then  realized  the  failure  of  attempting  to  make 
a  true  epicycloidal  curve  to  a  tooth.  It  will  be  seen  by  glancing  at 
these  again.that  the  lines  are  practically  parallel,  merely  beginning  the 
curves  lower  down,  so  that  while  it  was  an  epicycloid,  it  was  an  epicy- 
cloid secured  by  reducing  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  or  by  making  the 
space  wider.  I  then  determined  on  making  an  approximate  curve — 
that  is,  a  curve  the  outline  of  which  is  marked  5  in  the  tooth — whicb 
I  found  would  follow  in  a  measure  the  even  workings  of  a  proper 
epicycloidal  curve.  I  have  exaggerated  the  differences  slightly  here, 
in  order  to  show  the  lines,  but  the  curve  is  formed  on  much  the  same 
theory  as  the  epicycloid,  and  approximates  clearly  its  entire  length, 
except  at  the  extreme  point,  where  it  varies  sufficient  to  make  a 
departure  at  about  the  time  that  the  next  succeeding  tooth  of  the 
wheel  comes  into  engagement  with  the  next  succeeding  pinion  leaf, 
thus  maintaining  in  a  measure  the  practical  uniformity  of  the  epicy- 
cloid and  providing  a  good  wearing  curve  for  the  face  of  the  tooth. 
No  arbitrary  rule  of  determining  this  curve  can  be  selected,  and  it 
must  be  largely  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  designer.  It  would  need 
a  sheet  of  paper  much  larger  than  a  page  of  this  book  to  draw 
the  outline  of  an  approximate  curve  for  study  and  analyzing,  but  it 
would  be  well  for  the  designer  to  draw  his  epicycloid  curve  on  a  very 
lirge  scale — say  one  or  two  hundred  diameters — and  then  curve  the 
top  07tly  of  his  tooth  so  as  to  meet  in  a  point,  make  the  templet  of  a 
shape  desired,  and,  by  a  pantograph  engine,  form  his  cutter. 

Regarding  the  shape  of  the  pinion:  In  Fig.  314,  I  have  developed 
an  epicycloid  2  by  the  same  generating  circle,  and  shown  in  Fig.  315 
the  outline  of  a  pinion  marked  2,  that  is  made  from  this  curve.  In 
case  the  pinion  was  a  driver,  I  have  shown  in  Fig.  314  an  epicyloid 
marked  3,  developed  by  a  generating  circle,  the  diameter  of  which  is 
the  pitched  radius  of  the  wheel,  and  have  made  the  outline  of  a 


Wheel  Cutter. 


866 


pinion  tooth  in  Fig.  315,  with  the  curve,  and  marked  it  3.  The  inner 
circle  of  Fig.  315  in  the  pinion  is  the  pitched  circle — the  outer  circle 
is  a  circle  supposed  to  be  the  diameter  of  the  pinion,  the  addendum 
of  which  above  the  pitch  circle  is  1.50.  It  will  be  seen  from  a  glance 
at  Fig.  315  that  the  outlines  of  teeth  developed  by  epicycloids  2  and 
3  would  extend  beyond  the  arbitrary  selected  diameter  and  develop 
an  immense  amount  of  engaging  friction,  as  it  will  be  seen  that 
"lead"  takes  place  at  45  degrees  before  the  line  of  centers,  hence 
no  watch  would  keep  any  uniform  time  in  which  there  was  an  attempt 
to  make  the  face  of  the  pinion  an  epicycloid  curve. 

Look  at  the  outline  marked  6  of  the  pinion  tooth:  We  have 
here  a  tooth  which  is  only  1.25  addendum;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
face  of  which  is  a  semi-circle  the  diameter  of  the  thickness  of  a 
tooth.  This  is  all  that  is  necessary,  in  that  this  factor  above  the 
pitch  circle  is  merely  a  factor  of  safety,  Examing  the  engaging 
teeth  and  pinion,  it  will  be  seen  that  "  lead  "  can  only  take  place 
slightly  before  the  teeth  reach  the  line  of  centers. —  T.  F.  Sheridan. 


Fig.  316. 

WHEEL  CUTTER.     The  wheel  cutter  is  a  valuable  addition  to 
the  lathe.    Several  different  styles  of  these  tools  are  made,  each  pos- 


367 


Wheel  Vise, 


sensing  points  of  merit.  They  are  designed  for  cutting  all  kinds  of 
wheels  and  pinions  used  in  key  and  stem-wind  watches.  When  the 
cutter  spindle  is  vertical  the  belt  runs  directly  to  it  from  the  counter- 
shaft, but  when  horizontal  the  belt  passes  over  idler  pulleys  held 
above  the  lathe.  These  idler  pulleys  are  also  used  to  run  the  pivot 
polisher.  Fig.  316  illustrates  the  American  Watch  Tool  Company's 
wheel  cutter. 

WHEEL  VISE.  Rose's  patent  wheel  vise,  shown  in  Fig.  317  is 
is  used  for  holding  all  kinds  of  watch  wheels  while  undergoing  repairs, 
such  as  putting  in  new  teeth,  removing  rust  from  pinions,  etc.,  and 


Fig.  317. 


for  holding  balance  wheels  while  putting  in  or  removing  the  screws, 
taking  the  hair  spring  or  collet  from  staff,  or  for  any  work  where  the 
safety  of  the  wheel  is  involved. 


WIGWAG.  The  wigwag  is  used  for  polishing  the  shoulders  of 
pinions,  pinion  leaves,  staffs  and  pivots,  and  for  numerous  other  oper- 
ations. The  formation  of  these  tools  differ  according  to  the  ideas  of 
the  various  makers,  but  in  principle  they  are  alike.  These  tools  are 
used  extensively  in  all  the  American  watch  factories. 


INDEX. 


Abbey,  9 

Absolute  time,  Ui 
Acceleration,  5 
Acids  and  salts,  6 
acetic,  6 
boric,  6 
chromic,  6 
hydrochloric,  7 
hydrofluoric,  7 
nitric, 7 
oxalic.  7 
prussic,  8 
sulphuric,  8 
tartaric,  8 
Adams.  J.  C.  8 
Addendum  circle,  9 
Adhesion,  9 
Adjusting  rod,  9 
Adjustment,  9 

heater,  li 
to  positions,  9 
to  isochronism,  11 
Alarm,  13 
Alcohol  cup,  13 

lamp,  13 
All  or  nothing  piece,  13, 302 
Alloy.  13 

non-magnetic.  15 
Bell  metal,  American,  15 
Japanese,  15 
for  clock  bells,  German,  15 
Swiss,  15 
French,  15 
clock  wheels,  15 
compensation  balances,  13 
composition  files,  15 
gongs  and  bells,  15 
knives  and  forks,  15 
opera  glasses,  15 
spoons,  15 
tea  pots,  15 

resembling  silver,  16, 17 
gold.  17 


Alum.  6 
Aluminum,  17 

alloys,  14 
bronze.  14 
gold,  14 
silver,  14 
solder,  327 
zinc,  17 
Amalgam,  13 
Ammonia,  6 

phosphate,  6 
Ammonium  sulphide,  6 
Anchor  escapement,  18 
Angular  gearing,  21 
velocity,  21 
Annealing,  22 

steel,  334 
Annular  gear,  29 
Anode,  22 

Antique  silver,  imitation  of,  155 
Apparent  time,  343 
Aqua  regia,  6 
Arbor,  22 
Arc,  22 

Arcograph,  22 
Arnold,  John,  22 
Artificial  gold,  17 
Assay,  22 

Astronomical  time,  343 
Back  rest,  310 
Balance,  22 
arc, 35 
bridge,  35 
compensation,  108 
protector,  36 
screw  washers,  36 
sizes  and  weights  of,  25 
spring.  37 
staff.  87 
to  poise,  27 
Balances,  expansion-contraction  of,  21 
Banking,  41 

error,  41 


369 


370 


banking  pins,  48 

screw,  42 
Barleys,  42 
Barlow,  Edward,  42 
Bar  movement,  42 
Barometric  error,  42, 286 
Barrel,  48 
Barrel  arbor,  43 

contractor,  4S 

hook,  44 

ratchet,  44 
Bartlet,  P.  S.,  44 
Bascule  escapement,  44 
Baths,  management  of,  146 

brass,  146 

copper,  145 

gold,  147 

silver,  149 

nickel,  160 
Battery,  bunsen,  140 
carbon,  140 
coupling,  143 
Daniell,  137 
gravity,  138 
Smee,  140 
wire,  144 
Beat,  44 

block,  44 
pins,  45 
Bell  metal,  15, 17 
Bench  45 
Benzine,  49 
Berthoud,  Ferdinand,  40 

Louis,  47 
Bevel  gears,  47 
Bezel,  47 

chuck,  47 
Binding  wire,  47 
Bite,  47 
Blower,  47 
Blow  pipe  47 

soldering,  828 
Bluestone,  48 
Bluing,  48 
Bluing  pan,  48 
Bob,  49 

Boiling-out  pan,  49 
Borax,  6 
Boric  acid,  6 
Bort,  60 

Bottoming  file,  SO 
Bouchon,  50 
Bow.  60 

compasses,  50 

pen.  50 
Baxwood,  50 


Bi..-i.  17,  51 

black  bronze  for,  152 
bronze,  153 
etching  fluids  for,  51 
gold  yellow  for,  51, 154 
grained  surface  on,  150 
gray  stain  for,  155 
green  bronze  for,  155 
lacquers  for,  51,52 
magic  polish  for,  51 
polishes,  51 

polishing  paste  for,  51,  89 
steel  blue  on,  157 
silvering  for,  156 
to  blacken,  52 
to  clean,  86 
Breguet,  A.  L.,  52 
Bridge.  S2 
Brittania,  17 
Broach,  52 

Broaching  a  hole  vertically,  53 
Broaches,  to  solder,  53 
Brocot  suspension,  52 
Bronze,  antique,  152 
blue,  152 
brown,  153 
Chinese,  154 
for  copper,  153 
steel,  153 
steel,  338 
medals,  15,  153 
ornaments,  15 

Japanese,  15 
liquid,  153 
manganese,  15 
Paris,  15 
Bronzing,  135 

fluid,  153 
Buff.  53 
Bullseye,  53 
Bunsen  battery,  140 
Burnisher,  64 
Bush,  M 

Bushing  pivot  holes,  54 
punch,  55 
wheels,  55 
wire,  55 
Butting.  55 
Calipers,  56 

micrometer,  169 
Vernier,  176 
Callet,  F.,  66 
Cam,  56 
Cannon  pinion,  56 

to  tighten.  5T 
Cap,  67 


371 


Capped  jewel,  57 
Capillary  attraction,  57 
repulsion,  57 
Carbon  battery,  140 
Carborundum,  56 
Cardinal  points,  57 
Caron,  Peter  A,,  57 
Carrier,  57 
Case  hardening,  57 
springs,  57 

springs,  adjustable,  53 
spring  vise,  58 
stake.  58 
Cements,  58 
Cement,  acid  proof,  59 
alabaster.  59 
amber,  59 
brasses,  61 
chucks,  61 
engravers',  61 
fire-proof,  60 
for  metal  plates,  59 
for  glass  and  brass.  59 
for  glass  and  metals,  59. 60 
for  knife  and  fork  handles,  59 
for  paper  and  metals,  60 
gold  and  silver  colored,  60 
jewelers,  60 
metal,  60 
transparent,  60 
watchmakers,  61 
Center  of  Gravity,  64 
of  gyration,  64 
of  motion,  64 
of  oscillation,  64 
punch,  64 
seconds.  66 
wheel,  66 
staff,  66 
Centers,  61 

female,  61 
male,  62 
Centering  attachment,  62 
indicator,  63 
tool,  64 
Centrifugal  force,  66 
Chain  hook,  66 
Chalk,  67 
Chamfer,  67 
Chamfering  tool,  67 
Chamois.  67 
Chimes,  68 
Chiming  barrel,  68 
Chops,  68 
Chromic  acid,  7 
Chronograph,  68 


Chronometer,  68 
Chronometer  escapement,  68 

mungers,  76 
to  examine,  74 
Chronoscope,  78 
Chrysorine,  17 
Chuck,  78 

adjustable,  78 
arbor,  80 
bezel,  80 
box,  85 
cement,  81 
conoidal,  81 
crown,  81 
dead  center,  82 
drill,  82 
jeweling,  82 
pivoting,  82 
screw,  84 
shoulder,  84 
step  or  wheel,  84 
stepping  device,  81 
taper,  85 
Circular  error,  85 
Civil  time;  343 
Clamps,  85 
Cleaning  and  repairing  clocks,  104 

watches,  352 
Cleaning  filigree,  323 

mainspring,  260 
pendulums,  86 
pickling  and  polishing  86 
silver,  86,  323 
nickel,  86 
brass,  86 
Cleat,  90 

Clement,  William,  90 
Clepsydra,  90 
Clerkenwell,  93 
Cliche.  93 
Click.  93 

spring.  93 

to  mount,  93 
Clocks,  94 
Clock,  annual,  99 

astronomical,  99 
calendar,  100 
Canterbury  Cathedral,  94 
carriage,  100 
Cathedral  of  Metz,  96 
chiming,  lUO 
cleaning,  104 
DeVick's,  % 
Dover  Castle,  98 
electric.  100 
equation,  103 


873 


Clock,  equatorial,  103 

Ferguson's,  99 

gravity,  183 

Japanese,  201 

locomotive,  108 

master.  103 

mystery,  183 

Nuremburg,  96 

pivots.  105 

pneumatic,  103 

repairing,  104 

repeating,  103 

Strasburg,  95 

watch,  100 

watchman's  104 
Clockmakers'  Company,  106 
Club  tooth,  106 
Clutch  106 
Cock,  106 

Cole,  James  Ferguson,  106 
Collet,  107 

wrench,  107 
Colors  of  steel  under  heat,  337 
Compass,  107 
Compasses,  107 
Compensation,  107 

balance,  108 

alloy,  13 
curb, 111 
mercurial,  283 
pendulum,  111 
Concave,  111 
Contractor,  barrel,  43 
Conversion  table,  282 
Convex,  112 
Convexo-concave.  112 
convex,  112 
Conical  pendulum.  111 

pivot,  111 
Conoidal,  111 
Contrate  wheel.  111 
Conversion,  111 
Copper,  112 

brown  stain  for,  153 
silvering  for,  156 
Corundum,  112 
Corundum  wheels,  1155 
Counter  balance,  113 
Countermark,  112 
Countershaft,  112 
Countersink,  lis 
Crank.  113 
Cremaillere,  118 
Crescent,  113 
Crocus,  114 
Crown«whe»l,  114 


Crucible,  114 

Crutch,  114 

Crystal,  114 

Gumming,  Alexander,  114 

Curb  pins,  114 

Cusin,  Charles,  115 

Custer.  Jacob  D.,  115 

Cutter,  wheel.  366 

Cycloid,  115 

Cylinder  escapement,  115 

action,  116 
proportion,  117 
examination,  IIT 

Cylinder  gauge,  175 
plugs,  123 
to  pivot,  180 

Daniel  battery,  137 

Damaskeen,  121 

Day,  121 

solar,  122 
sidereal,  123 

Dead  beat  escapement.  122 

Dead  luster,  146 

Decant,  122 

Demagnetizer,  123 

Demagnetizing,  253 

Denison.  E.  B.,  124 

Dennison,  Aaron  L.,  VH 

Dent,  E.  J.,  125 

Depth.  125 

Depthing  tool,  125 

Derham,  William.  126 

Detached  escapement,  136 

Detent,  126 

De  Vick,  Henry,  126 

Dials,  126 

drilling,  127 
double  sunk,  129 
removing  name  from,  127 
removing  stains  from,  127 
reducing  diameter  of,  127 
repairing  of,  127 
cleaning  of,  128 
grinding  backs  of,  128 
luminous,  128 

Dialing,  128 

Dial  work,  128 

Diamantine,  128 

Diamond  drills,  1S8 
gravers,  128 
laps  or  mills,  129 
files.  129 

Diamond  powder,  129 

Dimensions  of  mainsprings,  %9 

Dipleidoscope,  129 

Dissolving  soft  solder,  327 


878 


Dividing  plate.  129 

Doctoring,  151 

Dog,  129 

Dog  screws,  129 

Double  roller  escapement,  129 

Double  sunk  dial,  129 

Douzieme,  130. 168 

Draw,  130 

Draw  plate,  130 

Drifting  tool,  130 

Drills,  130 

Drill  rest,  131 
stock, 131 

Drilling  lathe,  131 

Drop.  132 

Drum.  132 

Duplex  escapement,  182 
roller.  134 

Dust  bands,  134 

Earnshaw,  Thomas,  134 

East,  Edward,  135 

Electricity,  tempering  b> ,  3;i9 

Electroplating,  135 

Electropoion  fluid,  143 

Ellicott,  John,  157 

Emery,  157 

countersinks,  158 
files,  158 
pencils,  158 
wheels,  158 

End  stone.  158 

Eng^ine  turning,  158 

Engraving  blocks,  158 

Engraving  on  steel,  339 

Epicycloid,  159 

Equation  of  time,  159 

Equidistant  lockings,  228 

Escapement,  159 

anchor.  18 
bascule,  44 
chronometer,  68 
Clement's.  19 
cylinder,  115 
dead  beat,  122 
detached,  126 
double  roller,  129 
duplex,  132 
frictional,  134 
gravity,  184 
hor  zontal,  192 
lever,  216 
resilient,  310 
pin  pallet,  287 
jiin  wheel.  287 
recoil,  294 
single  beat,  394 


Escapement,  two  pin,  349 
verge,  350 
vertical,  3S1 

Escapement  error,  285 

Escaping  arc.  160 

Escape  pinion.  160 

wheel,  clock,  104 

Eye  glass,  190 

Facio,  Nicholas,  160 

Ferguson,  James,  160 

Ferric  oxide,  88 

Ferrule,  161 

Fetil,  Pierre,  162 

Fictitious  silver,  17 

Files,  162 

composition,  14 

Filigree,  to  clean,  323 

Filing  block,  162 
rest,  163 

Flux,  163 

soldering,  827 

Fly,  163 

Follower,  163 

Foot  wheel,  163 

Forceps,  soldering,  328 

Fourth  wheel,  163 

French  lines,  table  of,  282 

Friction,  163 

Frictional  escapements,  164 

Frodsham,  Charles,  164 

Frosting.  165 

Full  plate,  165 

Fusee,  165 

Galileo,  166 

Gas  heater,  167 

Gauge,  167 

cylinder,  175 
Douzieme,  168 
micrometer,  169 
pinion  and  wire,  171 
pivot,  289 
registering,  172 
staa,  173 
twist  drill,  175 
wire,  171, 175 

Gerbert,  177 

German  silver,  to  pickle,  87 

Gilding,  177 

steel,  150 

Gimbals.  177 

Gl  ss  polisher  for  steel,  3:39 

Goddard,  Luther,  177 

Going  barrel.  178 
fusee,  178 

Gold  alloys,  178 

Alloys,  to  pickle,  87 


874 


Gold,  artificial,  17 

baths,  147 

green  148 

Nurnburg,  5 

recovering  from  baths,  152 

red,  148 

spring.  178 
Grained  surface  on  brass,  146 
Graham,  George,  178 

escapement,  179 
Graver,  181 
Gravity,  183 

battery.  138 
center  of,  64 
clock,  183 
escapement,  184 
specific,  183.  331 
Gravimeter,  183 
Great  wheel,  184 
Grignion,  Thomas,  184 
Grinder,  traverse  spindle,  34S 
Grossman.  Moritz,  185 
Guard  pin,  185 
Gyrate,  185 
Gyration,  center  of,  64 
Hairspring,  185 

stud  index,  186 
Half  plate,  188 
Hall  mark,  188 
Hand,  190 

remover,  190 
Hardening  and  tempering  steel,  335,  337 
Hardening  liquids,  338 
Hardening  steel  in  petroleum,  338 
Harris,  Richard,  190 
Harrison,  John,  191 
Hautefeuille,  John,  191 
Henlein,  Peter,  191 
Hooke,  Robert,  191 
Horizontal  escapement,  192 
Horological  books,  19-^ 
Hour  glass,  196 

wheel,  196 
Houriet,  F.,  1% 
Howard,  Edward,  196 
Huyghens,  Christian,  197 

clock,  198 
Hydrochloric  acid,  7 
Hydrofluoric  acid,  7 
Hypocycloid,  199 
Ice  box,  199 
Idler,  199 
Impulse  pin,  200 
Independent  seconds,  200 
Index,  200 
Intrtia,  200 


Ingold  fraise,  300 

Involute,  201 

Iron,  gold  bronze  for,  154 

Isochronal,  201 

Jacob,  M.,  on  acceleration,  5 

Jacot  pivot  lathe  201 

Janvier,  Antide,  201 

Japanese  clocks,  201 

Jerome.  Chauncey,  203 

Jewel,  203 

capped,  57 
holder,  203 
pin.  207 

setter,  2C8 
Jeweling,  204 

tool,  204 
caliper  rest,  206 
Jodin,  Jean.  208 
Joint  pusher,  208 
Jurgensen,  Urban,  208 

Jules.  209 
Kendall,  Larcum,  209 
Kullberg,  Victor,  209 
Lacquer,  209 
Lange,  Adolph,  209 
Lantern  pinion,  210 
Lap,  210 

Lepaute,  J.  A.,  215 
Lepine  movement,  215 
Lathe,  210 

Barnes,  214 
care  of,  212 
Hopkins,  212 
Jacot  pivot,  201 
Moseley,  211 
Rivett,  813 

Webster-Whitcomb,  211 
Le  Roy,  Julien,  216 
Pierre, 216 
Lever  escapement,  216 

faults,  252 
Lever,  straight  line,  339 
Lime,  89 

Vienna,  351 
Liquids,  hardening,  338 
Lockings,  equidistant,  228 
LockinK.  253 
Magnesia  calcine,  7 
Magnetism,  253 
Magnets,  to  temper,  389 
Mainsprings,  256 

cleaning  of,  260 
Mainsprings,  dimensions  of,  259 
Mainspring  punch,  260 
winder,  260 
Maintaining  power,  263 


875 


Malleable  brass,  17 

Maltese  cross,  263 

Mandrel.  263 

Manganese  bronze,  15 

Mass,  263 

Material  cup.  263 

Matt  for  steel.  335 

Matting,  264 

Mercurial  conapensation,  283 

Meridian  dial,  264 

Metals  to  pick  e,  86 

Micrometer,  264 

caliper.  169 

Millimeter,  264 

Millimeters,  table  of,  282 

Milling  cutters,  264 
fixture.  264 

Miter  gears.  265 

Motion,  center  of.  64 

Moinet,  Lewis,  365 

Moment  of  elasticity.  26,^ 

Moment  of  inertia  265 

Momentum,  265 

Moseley,  Charles  S.,  265 

Motel,  H.,  266 

Motion  work.  266 

Movement,  266 

box,  266 
cover,  266 
holder.  267 
rest,  267 

Mudge.  Thomas,  267 

Mystery  clock,  183 

Nickel  baths,  150 

Nickel  plating,  151 

Nickel,  to  clean,  86 

Nitric  acid,  7 

Non-magnetic  alloy,  15 

Non-magnetic  watch,  267 

OU.268 

Oiler,  270 

Oil  sink.  270 

Oil  stones.  270 
dust,  270 

Oreide.  15 

Oscillation,  center  of,  64 

Overbanking,  271 

Overcoil,271 

Oxalic  acid,  7 

Oxidizing  silver,  155 

Pads,  soldering,  328 

Pantograph,  271 

Parachute,  274 

Pallet,  271 

staff.  271 
Stones,  271 


Papers,  watch,  S6() 
Peg  wood,  274 

cutter,  46 
Pendant,  274 

bow,  274 

bow  tightener,  274 
bow  drill,  274 
Pendule  watches,  274 
Pendulum,  274 

compensation,  111 
compound,  275 
conical,  111,  275 
error,  285 
laws  of,  276 
length  of,  280,  285 
oscillating,  275 
simple,  275 
spring,  286 
to  clean,  86 
torsion,  276 
vibrations,  283 
Perron,  M.,  286 

Petroleum,  hardening  steel,  338 
Pickling  of  metals,  86 

German  silver,  87 
gold  alloys,  87 
Pillar,  286 

plate,  286 
Pinchback,  15 
Pinion,  286 

grinder,  286 
lantern,  210 
Pinion,  and  vdre  gauge,  171 
Pinions  and  wheels,  361 
Pin  pallet  escapement,  287 
Pin  vise,  287 

Pin  wheel  escapement,  287 
Pins,  steady,  384 
Pivot,  288 

gauge.  289 
Pivots,  length  of  balance,  288 
play  of,  288 
shape  of,  288 
to  polish,  40 
to  turn. 40 
Pivoted  detent.  292 
Pivoting  cylinders,  120 
Plate,  29-2 

Plate,  three-quarter,  342 
Pliers,  watch  bow,  359 

watch  hand,  360 
Plunging,  when  hardening,  338 
Poising  the  balance,  27 

tool,  292 
Polisher,  pivot,  289 

glass  for  steel,  339 


876 


Polishin?,  2d2 

agents,  88 

pivots,  40 
Poole,  John,  29», 
Potassium,  bicarbonte,  7 
bitartrate, 7 
hydroxide,  7 
nitrate, 7 
sulphide,  7 
Potence,  292 
Potential  energry,  292 
Powder,  Belgium,  89 

gold,  89 
Prince's  metal,  15 
Prussic  acid,  8 
Pump  center,  293 
Punch,  center,  64 
Push  piece,  293 
Quare,  Daniel,  293 
Quarter  rack,  293 
Quarter  screws,  203 
Rack  lever,  293 
Ramsey,  David,  293 
Ratchet,  293 

barrel,  44 
Rating  nut,  293 
Raymond,  B.  W.,  293 
Recoil  escapement,  S94 
Red  stufi.  394 
Registering  gauge,  1T2 
Regnauld,  294 
Regulator,  294 
Reid,  Thomas,  294 
Remontoire,  294 
Repair  clamps,  294 
Repairing  and  cleaning  watches,  352 
Repeater,  295 
Repeating  attachments,  309 

rack,  310 

slide,  310 
Resilient  escapements,  310 
Resistance  unlocking,  350 
Rest,  310 
Ring  gauge,  811 
Riveting  stake,  311 
Robert,  M.  H.,  on  acceleration,  5 
Robin,  Robert,  311 
Rocking  bar,  311 
Roller  remover,  811 
Romilly,  M.,312 
Rose  cutter,  312 
engine,  312 
Rouge,  313 

Rounding  up  attachment,  313 
Roy.  Peter,  313 
Rox«,  A.  C,  813 


Ruby  pin,  318 

roller,  313 
Rust,  to  protect  steel  from,  338 
to  remove  from  steel.  :i37 
Safety  pin,  313 

pinion,  314 
Sal-ammoniac,  8 
Sapphire  file,  314 
Scratch  brushing,  89 
Screws,  314 

broken  to  remove,  314 
driver,  315 
extractor,  316 
head  cutter,  316 
left  handed,  313 
plate,  318 
tap,  318 
timing,  344 
Seconds  hand  remover,  318 
setting,  318 
split,  332 
sunk,  340 
sweep,  340 
Sector,  321 
Shellac.  321 
Sherwood,  N.  B.,  321 
Sidereal  clock,  321 
day,  322 
time.  34S 
Silver,  322 

assay, 322 
bath,  149 
cleaning.  323 

distinguishing  genuine,  322 
frosting,  323 
gold  tinge  to,  154 
oxidizing,  155 
paste,  89, 

plating  without  battery,  156 
Silver,  recovering  from  bath,  150 
separating.  322 
soap,  89 
to  clean,  86 
Silvering  for  brass  or  copper,  156 

iron  articles,  156 
Single  beat  escapement,  324 
Sizes  of  mainsprings  359 
Sizes  of  watch  movements,  359 
Skive,  3-24 
Slide  rest,  324 
Smee  battery,  140 
Snail,  3>»5 
Snailing,  325 
Snap,  325 
Snarl,  825 
Snarling  iron,  839 


877 


Sodium  bicarbonate,  8 
hydroxide,  8 
phosphate,  8 
pyrophosphate,  8 
Solar  time,  344 
Solders,  325 
Solder  aluminum,  8S7 

gold,  8i6 

hard,  325 

silver,  :326 

soft,  15.  3>7 

to  dissolve  soft,  327 
Soldering,  325 

blowpipe,  329 
fluxes,  327 
forceps.  328 
pads,  3-28 

stone  set  rings,  327 
tweezers,  349 
Specific  gravity,  183,  331 
Spectacle  tool,  331 
Split  seconds,  332 
Sprung  over,  332 
Square  root,  to  extract,  278 
Staff,  332 

balance,  to  make,  37 

gauge,  173 
Stain,  black, 152 

brown,  153 
Staining,  135 
Stake.  332 
Staking  tool,  332 

and  anvil,  333 
Star  wheel,  334 
Steady  pins,  334 
Steel,  334 

articles  to  temper,  338 

colors  of,  under  heat,  337 

engraving  on,  339 
Steel,  g'ass  polisher  for,  339 

hardening  and  tempering,  335 

matt  for,  335 

to  anneal,  8S8 

to  bronze,  338 

to  gild.  148 

to  harden  in  petroleum,  338 

to  protect  from  rust,  338 

to  remove  rust  from, 337 

to  temper,  337 
Stepping  device,  81 
Stogden,  Matthew,  339 
Stop  work.  339 
Straight  line  lever,  339 
Stud.  340 
Sully,  Henry,  340 
Sulphuric  acid,  8 


Sunk  seconds,  340 
Surprise  piece,  340 
Sweep  seconds,  810 
Table,  840 
Tail  stock,  340 

half  open,  341 
screw,  341 

traverse  spindle,  341 
Tavan,  Antoine,  341 
Tavernier,  Louis,  341 
Temperature  error.285 
Tempering  and  hardening  steel,  3"35 
Tempering  by  electricity,  839 
Tempering  magnets,  339 
Testing  needles,  341 
Tempering  steel,  336 

articles,  338 
Third  wheel,  842 
Thiont,  M.,  352, 
Thomas,  Seth,  342 
Three-quarter  plate,  342 
Timing  screws,  344 
Tin  putty,  89 
Time,  342 

absolute,  342 

apparent,  343 

astronomical,  348 

civil,  843 

sidereal,  343 

solar,  344 
Tompion,  Thomas,  344 
Touchstone,  844 
Tourbillon,  845 
Train,  345 

Transit  instrument,  345 
Traverse  spindle  grinder,  318 
Tripoli,  89 
Turns,  348 
Tweezers,  848 

soldering,  349 
Two-pin  escapement,  349 
Universal  head,  349 
Unlocking  resistance,  350 
Verge  escapement,  350 

pin,  351 

wire,  351 
Vernier,  351 

caliper,  175 
Vertical  escapement,  351 
Vienna  lime.  351 

Villarceau,  M..  on  acceleration,  6 
Vise  wheel.  367 
Vulliamy,  Benj.  Lewis,  852 
Watch  bow  pliers.  359 
Watch  case  tool,  359 
Watch,  35« 


878 


Watch  cleaning  and  repairing,  352 
Watch  hand  pliers,  860 
Watch  movements,  sizes  of,  359 
Watchman's  clock,  104 
Watch  papers,  360 
Wheels,  and  pinions,  361 
Wheel  cutter,  366 
Wheel,  foot,  163 


Wheel,  fourth,  163 
Wheel  star,  334 
Wheel,  third.  342 
Wheel  vise,  367 
White  metal,  15 
Wig-wag,  367 
Wire  gauges,  171, 175 


A     000  617  598     8 


a^^ 


